Philosophiae Doctor - PhD (Linguistics, Language and Communication)

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A critical evaluation of the development of Rumanyo as a national language in Namibia
(University of the Western Cape, 2017) Haingura, Paulinus; Banda, Felix
Among others, the current study had been conceived due to the fact that, although Namibia is endowed with multiple languages, their development throughout the long colonial history, had been unequal. That is, some languages received more attention than others and some were hardly developed at all. After independence, Namibians had legitimate expectations that all their (different) languages would be developed equitably throughout all the regions, and among all ethnic groups or speech communities. In the post-apartheid era, however, Namibians have been subjected to a limited and unequal language and literacy development which encouraged me to conduct a research to critically evaluate the development of Rumanyo or lack of thereof. The focus of this study is on understanding the disparities in language and literacy development in Namibia with particular emphasis on ethno-regional disparities and what precipitates these inequalities. The reason for the emphasis on region and ethnicity in researching language and literacy development was due to Namibia's multi-ethnicity and the over-lapping of regions and ethnic groups.
A social semiotic analysis of the linguistic landscape of two rural district municipalities in the Northern Cape, South Africa
(University of the Western Cape) Mokwena, Philadelphia Lorato; Banda, Felix
Linguistic Landscape (LL) studies typically focus on public signage displayed in urban environments, therefore LL is associated with cityscapes. There is limited research related to the LL of non-urban environments or ruralscapes. Another limiting aspect of the conceptualisation of LL is its emphasis on language only as a resource used in the construction of the LL. This study explored the Northern Cape rural landscape, particularly the Frances Baard District Municipality and John Taolo Gaestewe District Municipality. The study analysed various semiotic resources drawn on in the creation, narration and negotiation of the rural landscape. This study employed a multimodal ecological approach towards theorising and analysing the rural linguistic landscape of the Northern Cape. Semiotic remediation as repurposing was used to account for the extended sign systems in rural areas, in which sign-making and consumption is not necessarily dependent of written or 'visible' signs. In turn therefore, the study focused on aspects (visible and invisible signage; scripted and unscripted sign-making and consumption) that contributed to the construction of the rural landscape as distinct from urban landscapes. Gramsci's notion of site of struggle was drawn on to account for how meaning and space is constantly contested, as illustrated through the commercial signage, linguistic and naming practices of tuckshops. Material culture of multilingualism was employed to account for how written signage is used collaboratively with other materialities for sense-making purposes. Additionally, the adoption of material culture of multilingualism approach allowed for the exploration of the transformative role of a multilingual written and oral environment. More significantly is the study's contribution to the development of a more comprehensive theoretical approach to LL, than is currently in place. The study also contributes to the data collection tools and analytical frameworks of multilingualism studies.
Academic writing as social practice: a critical discourse analysis of student writing in higher education in Tanzania
(University of the Western Cape, 2006) Mohamed, Hashim Issa; Banda, Felix; Dept. of Linguistics, Language and Communication; Faculty of Arts
This thesis was a critical analysis of students academic second language writing at Sokoine University of Agriculture. Student writing in English as a second language in higher education has excited much interest in the English as a Second Language writing research and discussion in Tanzania. The interest was motivated by frequent criticisms from examiners regarding students literacy performance in the English as a Second Language writing in the post primary and higher education where the language of instruction is English as is configured in the Tanzanian language policy.
Analysing the discourse on corruption in presidential speeches in Nigeria, 1957- 2015: Systemic functional linguistics and critical discourse analysis frameworks
(University of the Western Cape, 2019) Ogunmuyiwa, Hakeem Olafemi; Antia, Bassey E.
Corruption as a concept is viewed differently by various disciplines, but there seems to be consensus that it relates to the misuse of public office for private gain. Studies in the social sciences, mainly political science, economics, sociology and law, have provided valuable insights into the subject, for example, its causes, manifestations and consequences. In a country such as Nigeria, corruption is said to have cost the country up to $20 trillion between 1960 and 2005, and it could cost up to 37% of its GDP by 2030 if the situation is not urgently addressed. The paradox, however, is that although all successive leaders of the country have consistently articulated their anti-corruption posture in national speeches, they get accused by their successors of not being tough on corruption both in word and in deed. Regrettably, there have been relatively few close textual analyses of presidential speeches carried out within analytical frameworks in linguistics that have the potential of revealing how presidents can simultaneously talk tough and soft on corruption, a contradiction that could well explain the putative anti-corruption posture of the country's leaders and the ever deepening corruption in the land. It is against this backdrop that this study draws on Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) in order to examine language choices related to the theme of corruption in speeches made by Nigerian presidents from 1957 to 2015. The objectives of the study are to (1) provide an overview of how the discourse on corruption has evolved in Nigerian presidential speeches from 1957-2015; (2) determine specific facets of the construal of corruption from the dominant choices made from the system of transitivity (process, participants, circumstance) in speeches by different presidents and at different time points in their tenure in office; (3) analyse how the interpersonal metafunction of language is enacted in the speeches by the presidents through the system of appraisal for a strategy of positive self-presentation and negative other-presentation; (4) interrogate from a critical discourse analysis standpoint the interest, ideological, partisan or other bases for the choices made in the speeches from the systems associated with the experiential and interpersonal meta functions of language; and (5) to evaluate the different presidents in terms of how the above analyses position them in relation to combating corruption.
Beyond difference: A textual and interactional analysis of Afrikaner�s language use and identity in Cape Town
(University of the Western Cape, 2022) Roets, Carla Trudie; Williams, Quentin
In a post-national South Africa, spaces are transforming to accommodate multilingualism and address structures of sociolinguistic isolationism and exclusion. In such a transformative society embracing multilingualism is an integral component of challenging the hierarchization of languages and redressing the vulnerabilities of historically marginalized speakers to contribute to social transformation. However, there has been an increase in social enclaves in certain South African communities, concomitantly less open to embracing linguistic diversity over the years. This thesis investigated one instance of linguistic isolation, namely an Afrikaner enclave that has organized itself around the affirmation of linguistic human rights.
Beyond the glass ceiling: Towards a multi-sensory definition of functional literacy
(University of the Western Cape, 2017) Odendal, Matthys Johannes; Stroud, Christopher
The world is becoming increasingly visual (Kress, 2009:1).The visually literate viewer should be able to gather data, place it in context, and determine its validity. A huge visual world opened up for the users of new technology. It is therefore no surprise that definitions of literacy have placed a huge premium on the reader to be able to interpret visual cues. Even in its simplest definition, the ability to read and write, the understanding of the concept of literacy is based on the visual. Although new literacies and recent orthographies also emphasise the role of context and the interaction of different modalities and learning history, like the social practice approach, it also focus on literacy events in which the written word is still the fundamental focus. In other words, (visual) texts remain the point of departure rather than seeing the written word as one part of a larger 'material ecology' of signs and meanings. This means that the majority of studies in the field of literacy focus on the individual's ability to interpret the visual and neglects how other senses permute in literacy events.
A comparative analysis of phonological and morpho-syntactic variations in Lungu, Mambwe and Namwanga languages in Zambia
(University of the Western Cape, 2022) Siame, Pethias; Banda, Felix
The study compares the phonology, morphology, and syntax of Lungu, Mambwe, and Namwanga (LuMaNa) languages which are less documented, and very little is known about their grammar. The purpose is to account for their linguistic structure to outline their grammar and design their orthographies. The study is informed by descriptive and comparative Bantu phonological and morpho-syntactic theories. Data were collected using comparative, elicitation, and document analysis methods to account for grammatical variations in the three languages. The study shows that LuMaNa languages have more phonological similarities than variations in terms of vowel quality. Regarding consonants, LuMaNa languages have twenty (20) consonantal segments which display minimal variations in terms of form. The nominal structure of the three languages also shows more similarities than differences.
Consequences of ideology and policy in the English second language classroom: The case of Oshiwambo-speaking students in Namibia
(University of the Western Cape, 2018) Iipinge, Kristof; Dyers, Charlyn; Banda, Felix
At independence, Namibia chose English as its official language and therefore its language of learning and teaching (LOLT). This decision has been well supported and therefore there has been an expectation among Namibians that learning English as early as possible is important because it will open many doors to the future (Harris, 2011). However, since the introduction of English as LOLT, government documents and other relevant literature have revealed poor performance of learners and falling standards of teaching (Iipinge, 2013). Despite this revelation, no study has been done in Namibia to investigate the effects of the current Language in Education Policy (LEP) on the teaching and learning of different school subjects. Therefore, this study focuses on critical questions regarding the effects of the current Namibian LEP on the teaching and learning of English Second Language (ESL) in Northern Namibia, with a special focus on one of the most demanding skills in second language learning: essay writing. Besides this, the study looks at the writing problems of learners and the intervention strategies that teachers are using to help learners overcome or reduce writing problems.
A contextual analysis of compound nouns in Shona lexicography
(University of the Western Cape, 2011) Mheta, Gift; Banda, Felix; Dept. of Linguistics, Language and Communication; Faculty of Arts
This research is in the area of lexicography and investigates the relationship between Shona terminology development and the culture of the language community for which the terminology is intended. It is a contextual analysis of compound nouns found in Shona terminological dictionaries. The study specifically explores how lexicographers together with health, music, language and literature specialists make use of their knowledge about Shona cultural contexts in the creation of compound nouns. Thus, this research foregrounds Shona socio-cultural contexts and meaning generation in terminology development. This study employs a quadruple conceptual framework. The four components of the framework that are utilised are the Traditional Descriptive Approach (TDA), Cognitive Approach (CG), Systemic Functional Approach (SFL), and Semiotic Remediation (SRM). TDA is used in the linguistic categorisation of Shona compound nouns. In addition, it provides the metalanguage with which to describe the constituent parts of Shona compound nouns. As TDA is mainly confined to the linguistic dimension, this research employs CG, SFL, and SRM to explore the cultural and socio-cognitive dimensions of terminology development.
A critical analysis of colonial and postcolonial discourses and representations of the people of Mozambique in the Portuguese newspaper �O S�culo de Joanesburgo� from 1970-1980
(University of the Western Cape, 2014) Da Costa, Dinis Fernando; Dyers, Charlyn; Stroud, Christopher
The aim of this thesis is to probe how Mozambican people were represented or constructed in the colonial and post-colonial periods through the columns of the Portuguese newspaper, �O S�culo de Joanesburgo�. The study examines a corpus of 58, 070 tokens (consisting of 100 articles, 50 for colonial and 50 for postcolonial periods), which were systematically selected from the political, sport, letters to the reader and editorial domains published from 1970 to 1980. The analytical framework for this study is threefold. It is informed by corpus linguistics (CL) as described by, amongst others, McEnery and Wilson (1996/2001) and Bennett (2010); critical discourse analysis (CDA), in particular the work of Van Dijk (1996; 2003), Wodak (1995; 2011) and Wodak and Meyer (2009) and multimodal discourse analysis (MDA) as used by Kress and van Leeuwen (1996; 1998; 2006), Kress (2010) and Machin and Mayr (2012)
A critical reflection on eclecticism in the teaching of English grammar at selected Zambian secondary schools
(University of the Western Cape, 2016) Mwanza, David Sani; Dyers, Charlyn; Banda, Felix
English is the official language in Zambia and a compulsory subject from grade 1 to the final year of secondary education. Communicative competence in English is therefore critical to mobility in education and is also central to one�s job opportunities in the country. This implies that the teaching of English in schools is of paramount importance. Eclecticism is the recommended approach to teaching of English in Zambian secondary schools. However, no study had been done in Zambia on eclecticism in general, and on teachers� understanding and application of the eclectic approach to English grammar teaching in particular. Hence, this study was a critical reflection on Eclecticism in the teaching of English language grammar to Grade 11 learners in selected secondary schools in Zambia. The aim of the study was to establish how Eclecticism in English language teaching was understood and applied by Zambian teachers of English. The study employed a mixed research study design employing both quantitative and qualitative approaches. In this regard, questionnaires, classroom observations, interviews (one-on-one and focus groups) and document analysis were the main data sources. Purposeful sampling was used to delineate the primary population and to come up with teachers and lecturers. In total, 90 teachers and 18 lecturers participated in this study. The documentary analysis involved documents such as the senior secondary school English language syllabus and Teacher training institutions� English teaching methods course outlines. These documents were analysed to establish to what extent they supported or inhibited Eclecticism as an approach to English language teaching. Data was analysed using qualitative data analysis techniques looking for naturally occurring units and reducing them to natural meaning units to check for regular patterns of themes. Data from quantitative questionnaires were analysed using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) to generate frequencies and percentages. The documents provided information on the efficacy of using Eclecticism as an approach to English language teaching in the multilingual contexts of Zambia. Theoretically, the study drew on Bernstein�s Code Theory and Pedagogic Discourse with its notion of Recontextualisation. The Code theory was used to examine power relations in education while recontextualisation was used to explore the transfer of knowledge from one site to another. The study also used the constructivist theory which views teachers and learners as co-participants in the process of teaching and learning and treats learners� backgrounds as crucial to effective teaching. Considering recent developments in technology, the study also explored the extent of the use of multimodal tools in the teaching of English grammar, and the contestations around the �grammars� arising from the dialogicality between the so-called �British English Grammar� and home grown Zambian English grammar. The idea here was to explore how English was taught in the context of other English varieties and Zambian languages present in Zambian secondary school classrooms. The findings showed that while course outlines from teacher training institutions and the senior secondary school English language syllabus showed that teacher training was aimed at producing an eclectic teacher, teacher training was facing a lot of challenges such as inadequate peer teaching, short teaching practice and poor quality of student teachers. These were found to negatively affect the effective training of teachers into eclecticism. Further, while some teachers demonstrated understanding of the eclectic approach and held positive attitudes, others did not leading to poor application and sometimes non application of the approach. In terms of classroom application, of the five teachers whose lessons have been presented in this thesis, four of them used the eclectic approach while one did not, implying that while the policy was accepted by some, others contested it. In addition, teachers stated that grammar meant language rules and they further stated that they taught formal �Standard� English while holding negative attitudes towards Zambian languages and other varieties of English. The study observed that teachers held monolingual ideologies in which they used English exclusively during classroom interaction. Finally, teachers reported that they faced a number of challenges when using the eclectic approach such as limited time, lack of teaching materials and poor low English proficiency among some learners leading to limited to non use of communicative activities in the classroom. The study concludes that while the eclectic approach is practicable in Zambia, a lot has be to done especially in teacher training in order to equip teachers with necessary knowledge and skills to use the eclectic approach. Among other recommendations, the study recommends that there is need for teacher training institutions to improve the quality of teacher training and ensure that student teachers acquire skills of resemiotisation, semiotic remediation and translanguaging as a pedagogical practice. The study also recommends refresher courses to already serving teachers to acquaint them with how the eclectic approach can be recontextualised in different teaching contexts. The study contributes to the body of knowledge in the theoretical and practical understanding of the eclectic approach and how it is used in the Zambian context. The study also adds to literature on the eclectic approach. In addition, the findings act as a diagnostic tool among government education officials, teacher educators and teachers of English in Zambia in particular as they can now see where things are done right and where improvement is needed. Other countries where English is taught as a second language can also learn from the Zambian situation as they search for better ways of training eclectic teachers of English and how to teach English in their own respective contexts.
A discourse analysis of selected truth and reconciliation commission testimonies: appraisal and genre
(University of Western Cape, 2007) Bock, Zannie; Banda, Felix
This thesis is a discourse analysis of five testimonies from South Africa�s Truth and Reconciliation Commission. The aim of the analysis is to explore the ways in which the testifiers perform their identities, construe their experiences of life under apartheid, and position themselves and their audiences in relation to these experiences. The shaping role of context � both local and historical � is also considered.
The discursive construction of Kenyan ethnicities in online political talk
(UNIVERSITY OF THE WESTERN CAPE, 2019) Ondigi, Evans Anyona; Bock, Zannie
Multi-paradigmatically qualitative, and largely in the fashion of the critical theory, this study seeks to explore how a selection of Kenyans construct, manipulate and negotiate ethnic categories in a discussion of national politics on two Facebook sites over a period of fourteen and a half months, at the time of the 2013 national elections. Kenya has at least 42 ethnic communities, and has been described as a hotbed of ethnic polarisation. The study is interested in how the participants use language to position themselves and others in relation to ethnicity, as well as to draw on or make reference to notions of Kenyan nationalism. The data for this study is drawn from Facebook discussions on two different groups: one �open� and one �closed�. The data also includes participants from different ethnic groups and political leanings. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), Engagement and Face-work are used as theoretical frameworks to explore how participants draw on different discourses to construct their ethnicities and position themselves as Kenyan nationals. The analysis also explores how informants expand and contract the dialogic space, as well as how they perform face-work during these interactions. CDA is important since the study examines ways in which participants participate in societal struggles through discourse, as either effectively supporting, sustaining, reproducing or challenging the status quo or power imbalances, especially as members of particular ethnic groups. The theory of Engagement is also important for the study since it helps explain how participants source their value positions and align each other as they open up or close down the dialogic space in their arguments or discussions. The notion of Face-work is used as an important complement to Engagement to further explore the nature of interaction between participants. The data has been analysed in two main ways: linguistically and thematically. The linguistic analysis generally reveals that the participants in the closed group paid much more attention to face-work, and used both expansive and contractive resources of Engagement almost in equal measure, while their open group counterparts tended more towards contractive resources and paid less attention to face-work. The interactions of both groups, however, point to the existing ethno-political mobilisation and polarisation in the country. The study also teases out several extra discursive strategies which it proposes for consideration as possible add-ons to the Engagement framework. Lastly, the thematic analysis reveals new important ways through which participants conceive ethnicity, especially as constituting interethnic relations.
Doing friendship: storytelling and playfulness in casual conversational discourse
(University of the Western Cape, 2023) Awungjia, Ajohche Nkemngu; Bock, Zannie
This study explores the linguistic construction of interpersonal relationships, specifically friendship. Although we have no control over which families we are born into, we can choose who can be our friend and unlike relationships formed within the workplace, there is no specific institutional context within which friendships can develop. There is also no legally binding agreement between friends as between married people, and there are no conventionalized roles that friends must play as is the case in parent-child relations. Nevertheless, friendship remains one of the most important relationships in people�s lives. Researchers have even argued that within a globalizing and increasingly mediatized world, friendships have gained more significance as more flexible and diverse ways of constructing one�s personal life become available (Spencer & Pahl 2006; Rawlins, 2017; Byron, 2021; Allan & Adams, 2007). This makes the study of the dynamics and processes of friendship within contemporary society fertile ground for harvesting insights into the ways in which the social fabric of the world is being (re)constituted.
(Em)bodying the linguistic landscape: affect, language and space
(University of the Western Cape, 2024) Kapa, Koketso; Peck, Amiena
This dissertation is an exploration of the contemporary discussion of the body in Sociolinguistics. This discussion is undergirded by two important texts: Peck and Stroud’s (2015) Skinscapes and Bucholtz and Hall’s (2016) Embodied Sociolinguistics. In these two papers, the authors argue for an analytical focus in contemporary sociolinguistics, which focuses more squarely on the body. Thus, this dissertation is an exploratory effort at contributing to this discussion. This dissertation suggests that based on previous research, it is an analytical strength to incorporate affect into analysis, when focusing on the body. In a moderate response to the theoretical questions offered in preceding studies, the dissertation utilises affect in analysis to highlight that when we focus on the body in research, our understanding of its role [the body] is enhanced by incorporating affect. The dissertation highlights how the detailed understanding of how communication unfolds is dependent on an analytical focus on the body, in combination with affect. In order to do this, the study focuses on three unique ‘bodily’ case studies which occurred on the South African media landscape during 2016 – 2018. In all three case studies, embodiment is present, though to varying degrees. The study relies on a qualitative research design to investigate these three cases, utilising Multimodal Critical Discourse Analysis as the core analytical toolkit. The overall argument of the dissertation is that the focus on bodies and embodiment is best paired with a focus on affect, as affect is shown to be a guiding principle in communication in these studies. A moderate argument for affect is advanced, as previous studies do indicate that a sole focus on the body is productive on its own. Engaging affect when studying embodiment then, is a suggested method for providing a more nuanced, detailed explanation of how communication unfolds.
An exploration of texture in Ghanaian undergraduate students� essays
(University of the Western Cape, 2020) Amoakohene, Benjamin; Banda, Felix
As an official and second language in Ghana, English is used as a medium of instruction in the Ghanaian educational setting, especially at the university level. Therefore, for Ghanaian students to go through their university education successfully, they should be able to demonstrate competence in the usage of English. However, time and again, there have been series of complaints from most English language teachers about the Ghanaian students� lack of dexterity in writing cohesive and coherent texts. The present study, therefore, has as its aim to explore texture in first-year Ghanaian undergraduate students' essays (GUSEs). This focus is achieved through four main specific objectives. Thus, the study accounts for (1) the types of cohesive devices (2) the cohesive errors (3) the disciplinary variation in the type of cohesive devices and cohesive errors and (4) the thematic progression patterns in the essays of these first-year Ghanaian undergraduate students. To achieve these objectives, I use the Systemic Functional Linguistics perspective to text analysis, specifically the metafunction of texture as projected by Halliday (1967, 1970, 1985, 1994, and 2004), Halliday and Hasan (1976), Martin and Rose (2003) and Martin (2015).
Exploring semiotic remediation in performances of stand-up comedians in post- apartheid South Africa and post-colonial Nigeria
(University of the Western Cape, 2018) Adetomokun, Idowu Jacob; Banda, Felix
This research has been conducted by focusing on the trajectories of semiotic ensembles from various contexts that stand-up comedians exploited for aesthetic and communicative purposes. I apply the social semiotic theory of multimodality (Kress and van Leeuwen, 2001, 2006), and the notions of semiotic remediation (Bolter and Grusin, 1996, 2000) and resemiotization (Iedema, 2003) to selected audiovisual recordings performances of Trevor Noah and Loyiso Gola from South Africa; and Atunyota Akporobomeriere (Ali Baba) and Bright Okpocha (Basket Mouth) from Nigeria. I explore the trajectories of semiotic resources that the comedians used across modes, contexts and practices. I also trace the translation and interpretation of socio-cultural and political materials by South African and Nigerian stand-up comedians� performances. The idea is also to examine the extent to which the socio-cultural and political contexts of both countries have differential effects on the choices in the semiotic resources used in the reconstruction of meanings, including cross socio-cultural taboos. The study reveals that combinations of various semiotic materials ranging from political, sociocultural, religious and personal lifestyles are remediated (repurposed) for comic and aesthetic effects. This involves translating and re-interpreting the semiotic resources across contexts and practices. In this regard, the study showed how the artists rework verbal language, images, socio-political discourses and other semiotic material for new meanings. It also reveals that although the choices of materials are similar, there is a tendency of localizing semiotic resources to particular localities and audiences, so that each artist�s performance comes out as unique to the person. The study concludes that language alone is not at the core of communication as other semiotic modes (in addition to languages) are integrated interweaving resources to make meaning. The direction of the modes or resources is multidimensional. All the spoken texts, all the non-linguistic modes: gestures, stance, movements, running on stage, postures, mimicking and others, perform vital roles to recontextualize meanings in stand-up comedy performance. Therefore, the study opens up new perspectives on social semiotic approaches to multimodality, as well as on language social semiotic and to theory and media studies. The contribution also answers the call to expand the understanding and research on the theory of �multimodality� and the various concepts such as semiotic remediation and resemiotization associated with it.
Exploring the link between literacy practices, the rural-urban dimension and academic performance of primary school learners in Uganda district, Uganda
(University of the Western Cape, 2005) Kirunda, Rebecca Florence; Banda, Felix; NULL; Faculty of Arts
This study aimed at establishing and analysing the literacy practices in the rural and urban communities and their effect on the academic achievements of learners. It also aimed to establish the impact of other factors, such as the exposure to the language of examination, the level of parents formal education and the quality of parental mediation in the their children's academic work, which could be responsible for the imbalance between the rural and urban learners academic achievements. This study endeavours to established that the literacy practices in urban areas prepare learners for schooled and global literacies while the literacies in rural areas are to localised and thus impoverish the learners initial literacy development. This study also seek to determine the extent to which the current language policy in education in Uganda favours the urban learners at the expense of the rural learners as far as the acculturation into and acquisition of the schooled and global literacies are concerned.
Exploring the micro-social dynamics of intergenerational language transmission: a critical analysis of parents's attitudes and language use patterns among Ndamba speakers in Tanzania
(University of the Western Cape, 2010) Lipembe, Pembe Peter Agustini; Stroud, Christopher; Dept. of Linguistics, Language and Communication; Faculty of Arts
The study has several implications; for general theoretical traditions it highlights the point that ambivalent attitudes and incomplete language use are responsible for gradual language decline. Previous studies while acknowledging the role of community based, intuitive conditions on language maintenance and shift, did not show how the process occurred. For policy the study aims toward sensitizing policy makers and raise their awareness about the dire situation in which minority languages currently are in. This would ensure that politicians, bureaucrats, and other state authorities could implement policy decisions that guarantee protection of minority languages and enhance their vitality. One policy strategy that could ensure revitalization of minority languages would be to include them in the school curriculum as supplementary approach to the effort of the home and the community, as McCarty (2002, quoted in Recento, 2006) observes that schools; [�] �can be constructed as a place where children can be free to be indigenous in the indigenous language - in all of its multiple and everchanging meanings and forms� (p. 51).
The form of Muslim government and its source of authority in contemporary Islamic thought : a comparative study of the views of Ayatollah Ru?ollah Khomeini and Sayyid Qu?b
(University of the Western Cape, 2013) Ebr?him, Badrud?n Sheikh Rash?d; Mohamed, Yasien
The year 1924, which coincided with the fall of the Ottoman Caliphate and more recently, the Arab Spring which started in Tunisia in December 2010, and spread across much of north Africa and parts of the Middle East, has captured the attention of worldwide audiences, but also policy makers from the West to relook at the masses in the Muslim world as not politically acquiescent, even ignorant, but also, and more importantly as to which forms of government these regions would adopt, secular or Shari�ah based (Islamic Law), or a combination of the two. The proposed research will examine and compare the views of the Sh?�i Iranian leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini and Egyptian Sunni intellectual and Muslim Brotherhood ideologue, Sayyid Qu?b regarding the form of government and its source of authority. Both scholars agreed on the sovereignty of the Shar?�ah. Khomeini stressed the centrality of the establishment of an Islamic government and the concept of Wil?yat al-faq?h in his book of ?uk?mah al-Islamiyyah (Khomeini, undate). Therefore, Khomeini�s doctrine of Wil?yat al-faq?h argues that the government should be run in accordance with the Shari�ah. For this to happen, a high-ranking cleric (Islamic jurist) should provide political guardianship over the people in the absence of and until the reappearance of the Hidden Im?m. Sayyid Qu?b stressed the establishment of an Islamic society before attempting to codify the Shar?�ah (Qu?b, 1981:76). His writing on politics and government does not lay out a comprehensive plan for Islamic governance. He does however; provide a foundation and three sub-principles that help determine its powers and structure. He declared that the foundation of Islamic political rule is Ul?hiyya (servitude) and Al-??kimiyya (sovereignty of Shar?�ah) of Allah. This means that the Islamic government is the rule of God (Loboda, 2004: 25) Furthermore, Qu?b, argues that Islam does not provide man with sovereignty, but Allah (God) is the only sovereign. In addition, he clarifies that an Islamic form of government itself is not divine as past Christian governments considered their kings to be divinely ordained. Instead, any rule with reference to Al-??kimiyya and based on three subprinciples is Islamic rule (Qu?b, 1993). The three sub-principles for Islamic political rule indicated by Sayyid Qu?b are as follows. Firstly, the rulers should be just. Secondly, the people should be obedient to the ruler as long as he submits to the sovereignty of Allah and implements the Shar?�ah. Thirdly, there should be consultation between the rulers and the community. However Sayyid Qu?b does not indicate a clear method of consultation between the ruler and the people. Instead, he leaves it up to the local conditions of the community. In the third principle, Qu?b indicated that the importance of consultation encompasses the entire concept of Islamic rule and Muslim community life (Qu?b, 1993:45). This means Sayyid Qu?b "indirectly states that rulers should be elected by democratic vote" (Loboda. 2004:28).

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