Working Papers

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In search of South Africa’s ‘second economy’: Chronic poverty, economic marginalisation and adverse incorporation in Mt Frere and Khayelitsha
(Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies, University of the Western Cape, 2007-11) du Toit, Andries; Neves, David
Since 2003, South African policy discourse about persistent poverty has been dominated by the notion that poor people stay poor because they are trapped in a ‘second economy’, disconnected from the mainstream ‘First- World economy’. This paper considers the adequacy of this notion in the light of research conducted in 2002 and 2005/06 in Mount Frere in the rural Eastern Cape, and in Cape Town’s African suburbs. It argues that a process of simultaneous monetisation, de-agrarianisation and de-industrialisation has created a heavy reliance on a formal sector in which employment is becoming increasingly elusive and fragile. Fieldwork suggested high levels of economic integration, corporate penetration and monetisation, even in the remote rural Eastern Cape. Rather than being structurally disconnected from the ‘formal economy’, formal and informal, ‘mainstream’ and marginal activities are often thoroughly interdependent, supplementing or subsidising one another in complex ways. The dynamics involved diverge significantly from those imagined both in ‘second economy’ discourse and in small, medium and micro enterprise (SMME) policy. Instead of imagining a separate economic realm, ‘structurally disconnected’ from the ‘first economy,’ it is more helpful to grasp that the South African economy is both unitary and heterogeneous, and that people’s prospects are determined by the specific ways in which their activities are caught up in the complex networks and circuits of social and economic power. Rather than ‘bringing people into’ the mainstream economy, policy-makers would do better to strengthen existing measures to reduce vulnerability, to consider ways of counteracting disadvantageous power relations within which people are caught, and to support the livelihood strategies that are found at the margins of the formal economy.
Socio-economic contribution of South African fisheries and their current legal, policy and management frameworks
(Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies, University of the Western Cape, 2008) de Wit, Martin; Hara, Mafa; Crookes, Doug; Jayiya, Terence
The Marine Living Resources Act (No. 18, 1998) establishes as an objective the utilisation of marine living resources to achieve, inter alia 'economic growth, human resource development, capacity building within fisheries and mariculture branches, [and] employment creation'. Fisheries policy is founded on two fundamental principles: 1) that fisheries resources belong to all of South Africa's people, and 2) that these resources should be utilised on a sustainable basis so that both present and future generations may benefit from them. The Act, and subsequent amendments, permits the extension of rights to undertake commercial or subsistence fishing, engage in mariculture, or operate a fish-processing establishment. As in most other fishery areas in the world, South Africa's management authorities face a growing need for the incorporation of socio-economic information in the management of fisheries. Social and economic contexts vary by fishery and, therefore, policy and management regimes differ among the sectors. There is a need to clearly understand the different contributions to the social and economic well-being of the fisheries so that appropriate management objectives and priorities may be developed. Taking the above into consideration, it thus becomes obvious that managing commercial, small-scale and subsistence and recreational fishers; the environment; meeting seafood consumer expectations; and developing appropriate political responses, will require carefully planned social and economic research in addition to the more traditional biological research. The purpose of this paper is to contribute to our understanding of the socio- economic contribution of fisheries to South Africa's economy and legal, policy, and management context within which the three main South African fisheries sectors (commercial, small-scale/subsistence, and recreational) operate'.
Strategy for fisheries socio- economic research
(Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies, University of the Western Cape, 2008-03) Jayiya, Terence; Hara, Mafa; de Wit, Martin; Crookes, Doug
This document sets broad strategic directions for a period of five years and provides a framework on which fisheries socio-economic research priorities can be determined on a more frequent basis. This is seen as more effective than investing in socio-economic research as and when the need arises. Development of the strategy should be seen as a process, not an endpoint, hence, it is quite likely that the strategy itself will require refinement during the next five years. An overview of fisheries socio-economic issues has to start with a clear meaning and understanding of what is meant by 'socio-economics' and, more importantly, what relevance this has to fisheries management. The term socio- economics therefore needs to be handled with some care. It does not really indicate a particular disciplinary focus and, in most cases, the work carried out by 'socio-economists' would be better divided between sociologists and economists carrying out their respective analyses though clearly working closely together (FAO, 2003). In this overview, the focus is on the work carried out by sociologists and economists, although the many important areas of overlap, where the disciplines may need to closely cooperate, are also discussed. This project has identified three fisheries socio-economic research themes for implementation by Marine and Coastal Management. These themes span the spectrum of fisheries management information needs, and often correspond to specific disciplines within the socio-economic sciences.
State, market and community: The potential and limits of participatory land reform planning in South Africa
(Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies, University of the Western Cape, 2008-10) Hall, Ruth
Market-assisted land reform, as promoted by the World Bank, has made little progress in South Africa: since the advent of democracy in 1994, just 4 per cent of white-owned agricultural land has been redistributed to black South Africans. Support for new land users has been limited and uneven in its reach, and yet beneficiaries have been required to follow business plans that emulate commercial farming. As a result, much redistributed land has been under-utilised and livelihood benefits for beneficiaries themselves have been limited. This has prompted mobilisation by landless people and their allies in favour of new policy options, which would see greater state intervention in planning, land acquisition and production support. This in turn has forced the state to confront questions on which it has, up to now, been agnostic: which land should be acquired, where, for whom and for what? These questions are to be answered through a new area-based planning approach that involves specific plans for land reform at district level. This has seen the state for the first time determining the nature, location, purpose and target group for redistribution, rather than leaving these questions to the market. However, rural people themselves have already expressed fears that state planning is consultant driven and fails to take their needs and interests into consideration. This paper explores the limits to both state- and market-led land reform approaches, and the potential of a hybrid that is founded on participation in decision-making by rural residents themselves. It describes an initiative to pilot a participatory approach in the Breede River Winelands district of the Western Cape. Here, the dualism of the agrarian sector is starkly evident: a high-value commercial farming sector, particularly deciduous fruit and wine, lies side-by-side with small-scale livestock and vegetable production by the poor, including evicted former farm workers. The question of who would define the plan for land reform, and how participation would be structured, is the focus of the paper. In the process, the paper explores conceptual and practical foundations for the World Bank's conception of 'community-led land reform' in which rural people as drivers of their own development are required to act as entrepreneurs in an uneven market environment. Instead, the paper presents some guiding principles to inform participatory land reform planning, in which participation involves multi-faceted processes to amplify, analyse, negotiate and hear the voices of landless people, and not the abrogation of state responsibilities.
Crew members in South Africa’s squid industry: Whether they have benefited from transformation and governance reforms
(Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies, University of the Western Cape, 2008-10) Hara, Mafaniso
Although crew members form bedrock of the squid industry, they have not benefited from the transformation and governance reforms because: the harvesting technique necessitates incentivisation of individual effort; they are highly mobile; and the industry is exempted from revised labour legislation. As a result, they have been unable to organise for laying claim on benefits. As they unionise to strengthen their bargaining position, the conundrum is how to maintain incentive practices on which the catching sector is based while asserting their rights. The challenge is re-structuring the sector to improve quality of employment while maintaining individual crew member productivity incentives.
What is a ‘smallholder’? Class-analytic perspectives on small-scale farming and agrarian reform in South Africa
(Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies, University of the Western Cape, 2009) Cousins, Ben
It is often argued that the primary beneficiaries of land reform in South Africa should be ‘the rural poor’ and ‘smallholders’, rather than ‘emerging commercial farmers’. The term ‘smallholder’ is problematic, however, because it tends to obscure inequalities and class- based differences within the large population of households engaged in agricultural production on a relatively small scale. Much usage suggests that smallholders form a relatively homogeneous group, and fails to distinguish between those producers for whom farming constitutes only a partial contribution to their social reproduction, those for whom it most of their social reproduction requirements, and those for whom farming produces a significant surplus, allowing profits to be reinvested and, for some, capital accumulation in agriculture to begin. This paper argue that a class-analytic perspective centred on the key concepts of ‘petty commodity production’ and ‘accumulation from below’ is essential for understanding the differentiated character and diverse trajectories of small-scale agriculture within capitalism. The paper explores the policy implications of such a class-analytic approach, and proposes that land and agrarian reform should aim to support a broadly- based process of ‘accumulation from below’, in combination with supporting supplementary food production on small plots and fields by large numbers of rural (and peri-urban) households, in order to enhance their food security and reduce income poverty. This in turn could see a marked increase in the numbers of (black) small-scale capitalist farmers. This class would be well placed to play the leading role in reconfiguring the dualistic and racialised agrarian structure inherited from the past, through being able to compete with large-scale commercial farmers in supplying both domestic and export markets.
Trading on a grant: Integrating formal and informal social protection in post-apartheid migrant networks
(Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies, University of the Western Cape, 2009-01) du Toit, Andries; Neves, David
This paper describes the findings of in-depth qualitative case studies based research on how poor and marginalised people in post-apartheid migrant networks seek to ameliorate poverty and manage their vulnerability. It argues that the ways in which people make decisions regarding formal social grants and cash transfers, their utilisation and their indirect impacts need to be understood in the context of the pre-existing and underlying systems and practices of informal social protection (Bracking and Sachikonye 2006). These informal strategies are shaped by two key phenomena (du Toit and Neves 2008): first, they depend crucially on the complex, spatially extended, de- centred social networks created by domestic fluidity and porosity in an environment of continued migrancy. Second, these networks are partly constituted by - and provide the underpinnings for - deeply sedimented and culturally specific practices of reciprocal exchange. This paper shows how social grants are used in this context. A detailed consideration of the case study material illustrates how cash transfers allow poor and vulnerable people to make 'investments' in human, physical and productive capital. The paper argues that a crucial aspect of the impact of cash transfers lies in the way they allow the leveraging of resources within networks of reciprocal exchange. Cash transfers, instead of 'crowding out' private remittances, can be seen to enable households and individuals to negotiate about the distribution of scarce resources within spatially distributed networks. Social grants thus have an impact far beyond the particular groups targeted in official plans. Crucially, given the existence of unequal power relations and practices of exclusion and exploitation within the informal social protection arrangements, social grants often provide key resources for those who would otherwise be marginalised. At the same time, they have only limited utility in addressing the core dynamics that drive chronic poverty. Reducing structural poverty in South Africa requires measures that address the underlying problems of structural unemployment.
Informal social protection in post-apartheid migrant networks: Vulnerability, social networks and reciprocal exchange in the Eastern and Western Cape, South Africa
(Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies, University of the Western Cape, 2009-01) du Toit, Andries; Neves, David
This paper considers the dynamics of informal social protection in the context of chronic poverty and vulnerability in post-apartheid migrant networks. It argues that in poor and marginalised households in South Africa, the indirect impacts of social grants cannot be adequately understood by focusing simply on either individual or household decision making. Instead, the paper concentrates on the central role of the elaborate and spatially extended network of reciprocal exchange within the informal social protection systems.
More to life than economics and livelihoods: The politics of social protection and social development in post-apartheid South Africa
(Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies, University of the Western Cape, 2009-03) Cole, Josette
In the past fifteen years the South African government has consistently tried to address chronic and structural poverty, using a variety of policy and programmatic interventions with uneven success. But, as the latest Presidential review (2008) confirms, out of all attempts thus far, it appears that the social grant system, now reaching more than 12 million South African citizens, has made the greatest impact on income poverty reduction. While this achievement needs to be applauded as a measurable indicator of our government's political commitment to reduce poverty, it is also signals other realities. Firstly, that despite the state's intentions of becoming more 'developmental', South Africa appears to have evolved into a "quasi- welfare" state, with millions of its citizens dependent on social grants and a social wage for survival; and, secondly, that this tells us that something may be fundamentally wrong with the overall way in which we have approached improving the quality of life for all South African citizens, including the poor.
The occupational dimensions of poverty and disability
(Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies, University of the Western Cape, 2009-03) Duncan, Madeleine; Watson, Ruth
This paper is based on ongoing research into the form, performance and meaning of all the things that particularly vulnerable people do every day i.e. their occupations. Occupations are the building blocks for livelihood. The relationship between occupation, poverty and disability is explored through the case study of a household with two adult disabled members living in a remote rural village in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. The description of their many deprivations illustrates how a scarcity of opportunities, resources and supportive infrastructures influences human development, agency and functioning and is compounded by disability. The concept of occupational poverty depicts the marginalisation of disabled people and their households. A community based rehabilitation approach is recommended as a means for promoting the inclusion and participation of disabled people, their households and the community in development initiatives, through the facilitation of each person's occupational performance.
Social protection, citizenship and the employment relationship
(Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies, University of the Western Cape, 2009-03) Lund, Francie
This paper addresses the issues of social protection, citizenship and the employment relationship through the lens of South Africa. All ideologies of welfare have at their heart assumptions both about the nature of the relationship between the state and citizens, and about the role of employment in contributing to lifelong security for workers and their families. Beveridge's model of the welfare state was introduced in Britain in the late 1940s at the same time as the National Government came to power in South Africa. The model was built on assumptions about family life and the role of employment in meeting families' needs: that most people would be married, that men would be head of household, that wages earned would be enough to cover the family, and that work would be the chief source of economic security over the lifetime. The wage would be enough to meet present needs, and the family was covered if the main breadwinner had an accident (workers compensation covered costs of accident and wage) or died (widow's allowance).
Contested paradigms of ‘viability’ in redistributive land reform: perspectives from southern Africa
(Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies, University of the Western Cape, 2009-06) Cousins, Ben; Scoones, Ian
‘Viability’ is a key term in debates about land reform in southern African and beyond, and is used in relation to both individual projects and programmes. ‘Viability’ connotes ‘successful’ and ‘sustainable’ - but what is meant by viability in relation to land reform, and how have particular conceptions of viability informed state policies and planning approaches? More broadly, how have different notions of viability influenced the politics of land in recent years? This paper interrogates this influential but under-examined notion, reflecting on debates about the viability of land reform – and in particular about the relevance of small- scale, farming-based livelihoods – in southern Africa and more broadly. These questions are not merely of academic interest. How debates are framed and how success is judged has major implications. With arguments for and against redistributive land reform often hinging on the notion of viability, justifications for public expenditure and budget allocations can be offered if programmes and projects are deemed viable. Conversely, portraying redistributive land reform as ‘unviable’ provides a basis for arguments that this is a poor use of public funds. Yet, despite its centrality in debates about land reform, viability is rarely defined, and its precise meaning often remains obscure.
The case for re-strategising spending priorities to support small-scale farmers in South Africa
(Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies, University of the Western Cape, 2010-04) Hall, Ruth; Aliber, Michael
This paper summarises what is known about South Africa’s public expenditure trends in respect of small-scale farmers, and discusses the growing contradictions between the policy priority placed on small-scale farming and the adequacy of support provided to small-scale farmers. It then proceeds to argue that: i) dramatic increases in public expenditure support to small-scale agriculture are highly unlikely, while further incremental increases to support the sector will in themselves make little difference; ii) a lot of the money already available to support small-scale agriculture is not well spent, with a particular imbalance evident between relatively large amounts of support to badly conceptualised land reform projects at the expense of black farmers in the ex-Bantustans; iii) there is an urgent need to shift the emphasis of support from on-farm infrastructure and inputs, to community-level infrastructure, market development and institutional re-engineering.
The mining-conservation nexus: Rio Tinto, development ‘gifts’ and contested compensation in Madagascar
(Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies, University of the Western Cape, 2011) Seagle, Caroline
This paper traces a genealogy of land access and legitimisation strategies culminating in the recent convergence of multinational mining and conservation in southeast Madagascar. Drawing on empirical research carried out on the Rio Tinto/QMM ilmenite mine in Fort Dauphin, it focuses on how local Malagasy land users are incorporated into new forms of inclusion (into the neoliberal capitalist economy) and exclusion (from land-based, subsistence activities) resulting from private sector engagement in conservation. Various material impacts of the mine were inverted and remediated to global audiences as necessary to sustainable development and biodiversity conservation. By financing, partnering with and participating in the same land access markets as international conservation NGOs, and setting aside small ‘conservation enclaves’ in each mining site, Rio Tinto/QMM legitimise mining in situ despite the negative socio-environmental consequences for the Malagasy. Mining–conservation partnerships may fail to adequately address — and ultimately exclude — the needs of people affected by the mines.
Nasruddin’s key: Poverty measurement and the government of marginal populations
(Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies, University of the Western Cape, 2011) du Toit, Andries
This paper considers the role of ‘measurement’ and other forms of poverty knowledge in a context where the nature and direction of global economic growth is creating ‘surplus populations’ suffering various forms of marginalisation in the global economy. It links the development of different forms of poverty knowledge with the ways in which states and non-state agents seek to ‘govern’ poverty and poor populations, and with the ‘biopolitics’ whereby calculations are made about the differential allocation of resources towards different sectors of the global population. The paper argues that addressing the root causes of poverty requires social actors to go beyond the narrow limits of institutionally sanctioned and bureaucratically invested ‘poverty knowledge’ that currently dominate policy thinking. Rather than seeking to understand poverty by measuring the characteristics of members of populations, they should try to understand poverty as an aspect of social relations, and try to come to grips with differential insertion of populations in the fields of force of modern globalised capitalism. Analysis should abandon simple notions of ‘marginalisation, and come to grips with the agency of poor people and the complex relationships between informality, marginality, exclusion and incorporation. Ultimately, however, a more nuanced understanding of the role of poverty knowledge in present day biopolitics does not bring with it any easy answers: rather, it challenges applied social scientists to be more aware of the responsibilities they bear as producers of 'useful' knowledge in a time of increased global instability.
'Land belongs to the community’: Demystifying the ‘global land grab’ in Southern Sudan
(Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies, University of the Western Cape, 2011) Deng, David K.
Sudan is among the global ‘hotspots’ for large-scale land acquisitions. Although most of this investment activity was thought to be focused in the Northern part of the country, recent research indicates that a surprising number of large-scale land acquisitions have taken place in the South as well in recent years. Now that Southern Sudanese have opted for independence in the 2011 referendum on self-determination, investment activity will likely increase further. This paper presents preliminary data concerning large-scale land acquisitions in two of the ‘Green Belt’ states of Southern Sudan: Central Equatoria and Western Equatoria. It explores the concept ‘land belongs to the community’, a statement that has been taken up by communities in their demand for greater involvement in decision-making regarding community lands. It also examines processes of company–community engagement and the extent to which rural communities are being involved in investment projects. Finally, the paper presents a number of case studies that illustrate the complex interplay between cultural sovereignty, conflict, and post-war reconstruction in Southern Sudan. It concludes with recommendations for the government moving forward.
Nasruddin's key: poverty measurement and the government of marginal populations
(Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies, University of the Western Cape., 2011) du Toit, Andries
This paper considers the role of ‘measurement’ and other forms of poverty knowledge in a context where the nature and direction of global economic growth is creating ‘surplus populations’ suffering various forms of marginalisation in the global economy. It links the development of different forms of poverty knowledge with the ways in which states and non-state agents seek to ‘govern’ poverty and poor populations, and with the ‘biopolitics’ whereby calculations are made about the differential allocation of resources towards different sectors of the global population. The paper argues that addressing the root causes of poverty requires social actors to go beyond the narrow limits of institutionally sanctioned and bureaucratically invested ‘poverty knowledge’ that currently dominate policy thinking. Rather than seeking to understand poverty by measuring the characteristics of members of populations, they should try to understand poverty as an aspect of social relations, and try to come to grips with differential insertion of populations in the fields of force of modern globalised capitalism. Analysis should abandon simple notions of ‘marginalisation, and come to grips with the agency of poor people and the complex relationships between informality, marginality, exclusion and incorporation. Ultimately, however, a more nuanced understanding of the role of poverty knowledge in present day biopolitics does not bring with it any easy answers: rather, it challenges applied social scientists to be more aware of the responsibilities they bear as producers of 'useful' knowledge in a time of increased global instability.
The role of foreign investment in Ethiopia’s smallholder-focused agricultural development strategy
(Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies, University of the Western Cape, 2011) Lavers, Tom
Recent foreign agricultural investment in Africa has generated a great deal of interest and criticism, with western media warning of a neo-colonial ‘land grab’. This paper moves beyond this narrow assessment by examining the political and social dynamics of foreign agricultural investment in Ethiopia, a country that has figured prominently in recent debates. The paper links macro-level analysis regarding the types of projects and their role in the Ethiopian economy to case studies of investments at the micro-level, which examine changing patterns of land use and implications for displacement, employment and technology transfer. The paper concludes that the expansion of foreign investment in Ethiopia is part of a government move towards an export-led development strategy. As such, macro-benefits in terms of increased foreign exchange earnings come at the cost of increased micro-level risks to those living near new investments, in particular, politically marginalised pastoral populations in remote regions.
Commercial biofuel land deals & environment and social impact assessments in Africa: Three case studies in Mozambique and Sierra Leone
(Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies, University of the Western Cape, 2011) Andrew, Maura; Van Vlaenderen, Hilde
The rapid increase in attempts by foreign investors to acquire large tracts of land in Africa for biofuel developments has generated substantial concern about their potential negative impact on the communities living in the targeted areas. This includes concerns about the impact on local residents’ livelihoods, their access to land, natural resources and labour, and their food security. This paper examines three case studies of proposed biofuel developments in Mozambique and Sierra Leone in terms of their social displacement impacts and the extent to which such impacts can be avoided or minimised. The case studies show that even in areas with low population densities and settlements concentrated in villages where it is easier to minimise displacement impacts, livelihood displacement impacts still cannot be entirely avoided due to communal and scattered land use in most rural areas. Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) processes have changed the location, size and boundaries of developments to reduce displacement impacts, but more mitigation measures — such as outgrower schemes and land dedicated to food production — can provide further livelihood restitution and avoid food security impacts. The three biofuel ventures also highlight the influence of tenure security for local land right holders in determining the nature of the land deals and the consultation processes: cases where land leases are made with central government seem to provide fewer incentives for developers to negotiate directly with local communities and provide them with lower levels of compensation.
The next great trek? South African commercial farmers move north
(Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies, University of the Western Cape, 2011) Hall, Ruth
This paper analyses the shifting role of South African farmers, agribusiness and capital elsewhere in southern Africa and the rest of the continent. It explores recent expansion trends, investigates the interests and agendas shaping such deals, and the legitimating ideologies and discourses employed in favour of them. While for the past two decades small numbers of South African farmers have moved to Mozambique, Zambia and several other countries, this trend seems to be undergoing both a quantitative and a qualitative shift. Whereas in the past their migration was largely individual or in small groups, now it is being more centrally organised and coordinated, is more frequently taking the form of large concessions for newly formed consortia and agribusinesses, and is increasingly reliant on external financing through transnational partnerships. As of early 2010, the commercial farmers’ association Agri South Africa (AgriSA) was engaged in land acquisition negotiations with governments in 22 African countries. This paper presents initial findings from a Future Agricultures Consortium (FAC) study to document and analyse major land acquisitions by South African farmers and agribusinesses, the processes through which these have occurred and are occurring, their impacts, and implications for land rights, livelihoods and the changing shape of agriculture. The research considers the changing character, scale and location of South African investments elsewhere in the region and the continent, focussing specifically on the AgriSA-Congo deal (the largest deal concluded thus far), and acquisitions by the two South African sugar giants, Illovo and Tongaat-Hulett, for outgrower and estate expansion elsewhere in the region. The study addresses the degree to which South Africa is no longer merely exporting its farmers, but also its value chains, to the rest of the continent — and what this means for trajectories of agrarian change.

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