Magister Pharmaceuticae - MPharm

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Evaluating the prognostic value of risk factors contributing to cardiovascular disease and established risk score estimations
(University of the Western Cape, 2024) Yip, Courtney Rachel
Evaluating the prognostic value of risk factors contributing to cardiovascular disease and established risk score estimations.Evaluating the Prognostic Value of Risk Factors Contributing to Cardiovascular Disease and Established Risk Score Estimations CR Yip M. Clin Pharm Mini-Thesis, School of Pharmacy, University of the Western Cape Introduction: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, with South Africa experiencing epidemiological transition. Although predictive models, such as the Framingham Risk Score (FRS), are widely used to predict CVD risks, these models often lack accuracy for diverse populations, including those in South Africa. Therefore, there is an urgent need to integrate additional risk factors that reflect the unique demographic and lifestyle characteristics of South Africa. This sub-study analysis aimed to improve the predictive accuracy and specificity of the FRS by incorporating a broad range of biometric, biochemical, and lifestyle variables. This study examined the extent to which these factors could enhance existing risk prediction models and offer more tailored recommendations for cardiovascular risk assessment in South Africa. Methods: Using convenience sampling, a correlational design was used to explore the relationship between health parameters and CVD risk among staff members at the University of the Western Cape (UWC). Data collection involved comprehensive questionnaires on demographic, lifestyle, and dietary factors, as well as biomarker measurements obtained through point-of-care (POCT) testing devices. The FRS and Prospective Cardiovascular Munster Study Risk Score (PROCAM) were calculated using the cleaned and validated data in Microsoft Excel. Analyses, including correlation matrices and multiple linear regression, were performed using Python. The model’s robustness was ensured by testing key assumptions, including linearity, independence, constant variance, and normality of residuals through residual plots and statistical tests.
Synthesis and evaluation of pyrazinoic acid loaded polymeric nanoparticles in the treatment of Tuberculosis
(University of the Western Cape, 2024) Mutetwa Munopaishe
Purpose: Tuberculosis (TB) remains a deadly infectious disease worldwide despite the availability of antibiotics. TB is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis), which is primarily resident in macrophages. Pyrazinamide (PZA) is a first-line antibiotic used in combination with other anti-tuberculosis drugs to treat TB. PZA is a prodrug that is converted to pyrazinoic acid (POA), the active moiety that exerts its bactericidal effects in macrophages. Low therapeutic drug concentrations of PZA, severe side effects, and poor patient adherence have led to treatment failure and increasing cases of M. tuberculosis resistance to antibiotics, including PZA. PZA resistance is mainly caused by mutations in the pncA gene that encodes the pyrazinamidase enzyme responsible for activating PZA to POA. Therefore, administering POA is a potential solution to address the challenge of treatment of drug resistant TB. However, POA encounters barriers to absorption, due to its poor biopharmaceutical properties that reduces its available concentration for cellular uptake and overall therapeutic effect. We propose a polymeric nanoparticle (NP) based system to deliver POA. The NPs are aimed to deliver POA for a therapeutic effect against mycobacteria. This study therefore investigates the synthesis, characterization and the antimycobacterial activity of such NPs. Methods: A double emulsion solvent evaporation method was used to synthesize water-in-oil-in-water (w/o/w) POA and PZA loaded polycaprolactone (PCL) NPs. Characterization of the NPs was performed using Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) techniques to determine particle size, polydispersity index (PDI) and zeta potential (ZP). Particle surface and morphology were analysed using high resolution scanning electron microscopy (HR-SEM). UV spectroscopy was used to quantify POA and PZA loading. Drug release studies were performed in phosphate buffer (PBS) pH 7.4 and 0.1M hydrochloric acid (HCL) pH 1.2. Drug release data obtained was mathematically modelled for all formulations. Antibacterial assays were conducted using a PZA sensitive TB strain, Mycobacterium smegmatis (M. smegmatis) strain. Results: POA and PZA loaded PCL NPs of varying drug : polymer ratios (1:1, 0.5:1, 0.4:1, 0.25:1) were successfully synthesized. Mean particle size were in the range of 276 ± 17.10 to 333 ± 31.3 nm for POA loaded PCL NPs and 281 ± 14.8 to 345 ± 95.70 nm for PZA loaded PCL NPs. NPs were monodisperse with the PDI ranging from 0.16 ± 0.04 to 0.22 ± 0.03 for POA loaded PCL NPs and 0.1 ± 0.01 to 0.29 ± 0.10 for PZA loaded PCL NPs. ZP values were within a range of -7.7 ± 2.2 to -18.2 ± 3.4 mV for POA loaded NPs and -13.8 ± 2.0 to -20.3 ± 5.4 mV for PZA loaded PCL NPs indicating stable NPs. NPs had a spherical morphology with fairly smooth surfaces. Encapsulation efficiency for POA NP formulation was within the range of 24.07 ± 1.10 % and 65.53 ± 6.25 % with a maximum drug loading capacity of 10.57 ± 0.37% w/w while PZA NP formulation had an encapsulation efficiency range of 30.35 ± 2.76 % and 77.91 ± 6.61 % and drug loading capacity of 12.02 ± 0.63% w/w. A biphasic Fickian diffusion release pattern of POA and PZA from PCL NPs was observed in both PBS at pH 7.4 and 0.1M HCL at pH 1.2. At the 48 h timepoint, POA released was 45.67 ± 3.68% in PBS and 24.01 ± 2.45% in 0.1M HCL and PZA released was 52.63% ± 2.10 in PBS and 45.72% ± 3.58 in 0.1M HCL indicating pH sensitivity in release and sustained release of the drugs. A concentration of 200 μM was determined as the ideal minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for both POA and PZA solutions as they displayed the lowest % cell viability of 19.28 ± 10.99 % and 34.02 ± 8.09 % respectively following a 24 h treatment to the M. smegmatis using a range of concentrations for in vitro antibacterial assays. After the incubation period of 24 h, POA and PZA displayed a low % cell viability of 19.28 ± 10.99 % and 34.02 ± 8.09% respectively at a concentration of 200 μM. Interestingly, in comparison to the standard drug solutions, following a 24 h incubation of the antibacterial assays, the % cell viability observed for POA and PZA-PCL NPs was 71.5 ± 7.57% and 96.9 ± 15.70%, respectively. The % cell viability at 48 h for POA and PZA PCL NPs was 74.5 ± 6.69 % and 108.41 ± 11.90 %, respectively. Conclusions: POA and PZA loaded PCL NPs were successfully synthesized. The NPs showed controlled release suggesting the ability of the nano formulations to maintain drug concentrations over time. The findings from the antibacterial study indicated greater antimicrobial effect from NPs loaded with POA than those with PZA. These findings demonstrate that PCL NPs are a useful carrier of POA and can be used in the investigations against PZA resistant M. tuberculosis
Investigation of the effects of temperature and humidity on yields of a complementary medicine product under regulatory stability conditions
(University of the Western Cape, 2025) Singh Dillon; Dube Admire
Background: The South African Health Products Regulatory Authority (SAHPRA) mandated that all complementary and alterna􀆟ve medicines (CAM) that were marketed and sold in the South African market be registered with the regulatory authority (RA) or have a submission for registra􀆟on under review with the RA by June 2021, star􀆟ng with submissions for registra􀆟on from February 2020(1). The deadline was extended to February 2022. In order to apply for registra􀆟on of the CAM and con􀆟nue marke􀆟ng the product within the South African market, stability data of the finished pharmaceu􀆟cal product (FPP) was required(2). The environmental storage condi􀆟ons for which stability data must be generated before registra􀆟on was s􀆟pulated as 25°C ± 2°C/60% RH ± 5% RH or 30°C ± 2°C/65% RH ± 5% RH for 6 months and 40°C ± 2°C/75% RH ± 5% RH for 6 months. Product X is a CAM product that has been manufactured at a South African local pharmaceu􀆟cal manufacturing company since 2020 and sold in the South African market for more than 3 years. The product uses herbal material encapsulated in a hard gela􀆟n capsule (HGC) to deliver its effects. The batch manufacturing records (BMRs) required the recording of the environmental manufacturing temperatures (TME) and rela􀆟ve humidity percentage (RH %) at the 􀆟me of manufacture of Product X. The percentage yield of capsules manufactured was also calculated and recorded to ensure quality control of the product during manufacture. Problem: There is no formal stability data for the bulk of Product X to support a submission for registra􀆟on with SAHPRA as a CAM. The bulk is defined as the material-filled capsules of Product X. The product was not developed using a formal stability program which would have generated the required stability data of environmental storage condi􀆟ons for Product X being subjected to the condi􀆟ons 25°C ± 2°C/60% RH ± 5% RH or 30°C ± 2°C/65% RH ± 5% RH for 6 months and 40°C ± 2°C/75% RH ± 5% RH for 6 months of during its product development. The final product (FP), which is a product that has undergone all stages of produc􀆟on excluding packaging(3), of Product X did not have any stability data for the product’s storage under the environmental storage condi􀆟ons as s􀆟pulated by SAHPRA, hence, there is no certainty as to how the FP would react under the s􀆟pulated environmental condi􀆟ons. There is no data on the bulk product, which is large quan􀆟􀆟es of FP prior to packaging, to indicate what effect the TME and % RH condi􀆟ons have on the product during manufacture. The hypothesis, based on available literature, is that high temperatures and high humidity would have a nega􀆟ve impact on the gela􀆟n capsules used during Product X’s manufacture, causing cross-linking and swelling. This would cause the capsules to lose stability and become unsuitable for use.
Attitudes and knowledge of cbd and non-medical cannabis amongst retail pharmacists in South Africa
(Universty of the Western Cape, 2023) Naik, Yugeshnee; Ebrahim, Naushaad
The recent changes in South African legislation have led to the reclassification of cannabidiol (CBD) as Schedule 0 and the decriminalization of non-medical (recreational) cannabis. As a result, CBD and recreational cannabis have become more accessible to the general public. This increased interest in cannabis has prompted individuals to seek guidance from pharmacists regarding cannabis products and their usage. For pharmacists to provide accurate advice, it's crucial to assess their confidence and knowledge when dealing with these products. Interestingly, no previous research of this kind has been conducted in South Africa. This study's main objective was to assess the attitudes and knowledge of pharmacists concerning the recommendation and counselling of CBD and recreational cannabis to their patients. This goal was pursued by investigating pharmacists' clinical knowledge, experiences, attitudes, and practices regarding CBD products. Additionally, the study aimed to identify factors influencing pharmacists' inclination to endorse CBD products, as well as explore how pharmacists perceive and approach the topic of recreational cannabis.
The transition of regulatory services from drug regulatory unit to Botswana medicines regulatory authority: an evaluation of the changes in regulatory services from the industry’s perspective
(University of the Western Cape, 2023) Maloisane, Rebecca M; Egieyeh, Samuel; Gwaza, Luther
The Drug Regulatory Unit (DRU) was established by the Ministry of Health (MoH) to enforce the Drugs and Related Substances Act of 1992 in line with the Botswana National Drug Policy (BNDP) adopted in 2002 and the National Health Policy (NHP) to attain health for all. However, as with many National Regulation Authorities (NRAs) in low and middle-income countries, the DRU had major challenges in inefficient legislation and regulation to address the supply of substandard and falsified medicines, and financial and human resource constraints to maintain and sustain regulatory oversight. The Government of Botswana through the MoH restructured DRU into a semi-autonomous regulatory body, Botswana Medicines Regulatory Authority (BOMRA). To aid the NRAs in building and strengthening regulatory systems' capacity to regulate medicinal products effectively and efficiently, the World Health Organization (WHO) has generated a Global Benchmarking Tool (GBT) for member states. As of December 2019, a total of 26 countries underwent formal benchmarking while 54 countries including Botswana completed self-assessments using the WHO-GBT. Despite this self-assessment, there might be a need to assess the efficiency of the regulatory service delivery of BOMRA from the industry’s perspective. The study aimed to assess and compare the changes in the regulatory system for the WHO-recommended regulatory functions and service delivery following the transition of DRU to BOMRA from the industry’s perspective.
Identification of potential antibiofilm hit compounds from two African natural product database against multi-drug resistant staphylococcus aureus: an in silico study
(University of the Western Cape, 2023) Ilori, Tosin Lydia; Egieyeh, Samuel
One of the crucial ways by which Staphylococcus aureus develops resistance to antibiotics is biofilm formation, a protective mechanism involving extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) matrix that shields microorganisms from the effects of antibiotics, mechanical forces, pH, and host immune responses. While some encouraging results point to the possible use of FDA-approved medications against biofilms, more research is needed due to sporadic and patchy data. The complex chemical diversity of natural compounds makes them a reservoir of bioactive molecules for drug discovery. This study seeks to identify effective potential antibiofilm compounds from a query dataset compiled from two African natural product databases (SANCDb and AfroDb). A database of known antibiofilm compounds was created from ChEMBL, PubChem, and other related databases while a query dataset of natural products was compiled for this study. The ligand similarity (LS) searches were unable to unequivocally identify distinct differences in the molecular structures and functional group moiety of the active and inactive compounds.
Exploring a participatory multi-stakeholder engagement approach to address chronic medicine use
(University of the Western Cape, 2023) Nfurayase, Bonheur Parfaite; Bheekie, Angeni
Background: In South Africa, chronic diseases (CD) fall into the quadruple burdens of diseases. In 2018 the World Health Organization (WHO) reported that chronic diseases were responsible for more than fifty percent of premature deaths. This report followed South Africa’s announcement in 2016 that CDs accounted for forty-nine percent of all total deaths. Globally and locally in South Africa, many progressive policies, strategic documents and interventions to address CDs remain commendable. However, the prevalence and burden of CDs on national healthcare systems and community health is concerning. Consequently, newer and revised approaches and strategies prioritising multi-government and multi-stakeholder collaborations are gaining popularity. Moreover, Participatory Action Research (PAR) and its founding principles as an approach to addressing healthcare issues are gaining momentum. Disappointingly such approaches within chronic disease contexts remain underexplored in South Africa. Bearing these considerations in mind, we explored the use of a Participatory multi-stakeholder engagement approach to address chronic medicine use issues (CMU) within an underserved community in the Western Cape. Our collaborative research project commenced in 2018 in a unique research setting that boasted pre-established partnerships between a pharmacy School and its services partners (NGO and CHWs). These service partners connected the School to surrounding communities through one of their experiential learning programmes, Service Learning in Pharmacy (SLiP).
Design of a thermoresponsive hydrogel for enhanced intratumoral permeation of a chemotherapeutic agent in oral squamous cell carcinoma
(University of the Western Cape, 2023) Tanga, Sandrine; Aucamp, Marique
Introduction: Oral squamous cell carcinoma is the most common and aggressive cancer occurring in the oral cavity. Intravenous chemotherapy remains a pivotal part of treatment for the disease; however, these drugs cause debilitating systemic side effects and are unable to permeate into the deep compact layers of tumorous tissue cells. Herein, the intratumoral delivery of doxorubicin using a novel hydrogel blend, of chitosan/k-carrageenan and PluronicTM F127, for a rapid solution-to-gel thermoresponsive transition at 37 °C is proposed to achieve tumour-specific delivery and controlled drug release. For enhanced permeation, a novel monoterpene – limonene with high lipophilicity and anti-cancer effect is combined with the hydrogel system.
Effect of inhaled cationic poly-peptides on respiratory mechanics in the isolated perfused rat lung
(University of the Western Cape, 1998) Wang, Weizhou; Syce, J. A
The inhalation route is increasingly being considered as a viable option to deliver protein drugs into the body, but there has been few studies dealing with the safety of this strategy. The results of in vitro studies have shown that proteins, especially cationic proteins, can interfere with pulmonary surfactant and affect its surface tension lowering activity. If such an interaction also occurs in vivo it may lead to the inactivation of endogenous pulmonary surfactant and have profound adverse effect on the respiratory mechanics of the lung. To investigate this contention a suitable model which allows the inhalation mode of administration of proteins and the continuous monitoring of lung compliance and other parameters is needed. The objectives of this study consequently were to (1) adapt the isolated perfused rat lung (IPL) to allow the administration of exogenous protein via the inhalation route into the alveoli, and (2) to use the adapted model to investigate the effect which inhaled cationic poly-peptides could have on lung function. It was hypothesised that such inhaled cationic peptides would interact with and inactivate the pulmonary surfactant leading to a decrease in lung compliance The lungs from adult Wistar rats were isolated and mounted in the IPL system. Three administration methods viz. aerosol administration, propellent driven administration and intra-tracheal instillation during positive pressure ventilation were considered.
The antimicrobial screening of four South African asteraceae species and the preliminary structural investigation of an antipseudomonal compound from Arctotts auriculata
(University of the Western Cape, 1998) Salie, Fuad; Eagles, P.F.K.
Infectious diseases represent one of the main causes of morbidity and mortality in developing countries, like South Africa. The indiscriminate use of antibiotics has also resulted in the emergence of a number of resistant bacterial strains. Four plants belonging to the Asteraceae (Daisy) Family, which forms part of the Fynbos Biome, were screened for their phytochemical composition and mantimicrobial activity. The plants investigated were: Helichrysum crispum, Felicia erigeroides, Eriocephalus africanzs and Arctotis auriculata. The plants were selected on the basis of their ethnobotanical use in various infectious diseases.
The antimicrobial screening of four South African Asteraceae species and the preliminary structural investigation of an antipseudomonal compound from Arctotis auriculata
(University of the Western Cape, 1998) Salie, Fuad; Eagles, Peter; Leng, H.M.J
Infectious diseases represent one of the main causes of morbidity and mortality in developing countries, like South Africa. The indiscriminate use of antibiotics has also resulted in the emergence of a number of resistant bacterial strains. Four plants belonging to the Asteraceae (Daisy) Family, which forms part of the Fynbos Biome, were screened for their phytochemical composition and antimicrobial activity. The plants investigated were: Helichrysum crispum, Felicia erigeroides, Eriocephalus africanzs and Arctotis auriculata. The plants were selected on the basis of their ethnobotanical use in various infectious diseases. The results from the phytochemical identification showed that all the plants tested positive for tannins. Flavonoids were detected in the leaves and stems of A. auriculata and F. erigeroides and the stems of E. africanus. Saponins were present in the leaves of H. crispum and the leaves and roots of F. erigeroides. Triterpene steroids were found in the stems of E. africanus and F. erigeroides. Akaloids were only detected in the leaves of A. auriculata and cyanogenic glucosides were in the stems of H. crispum and the leaves of A. auricula/a. None of the plants tested positive for quinones. The disc diffirsion method was used to determine the antimicrobial potential of the selected plant species. The results from this initial study showed that the organic extracts of A. auriculata and H. crispum inhibited the growth of Mycobacterium smegmatis. The same extracts, together with the organic extracts of F. erigeroides, were active against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antifungal activities against Candida albicans were exhibited by the organic extracts of E. africanus, F. erigeroide^s and H. crispum. Organic extracts of A. auriculata and E. africanus, as well as the aqueous extract of the latter plant, were active against Staphylococcus aureus. Hereafter, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) and minimum mycobactericidal concentration (MMC) of the most active solvent extracts of selected organs of the four plants were done.
Cardiovascular effects of aqueous leaf extract of Leonotis leonurus in Anesthetized rats
(University of the Western Cape, 2008) Tshambuluka, Noxolo; Mugabo, Pierre
The present study was designed to evaluate the hypotensive properties and the mechanisms of action of the aqueous leaf extract of Leonotis leonurus in anesthetized male Wistar rats, using computerized blood pressure recording system.
Effects of the alkaloid present in the ethyl acetate: hexane (1 :4) fraction of Crinum macowanii on the isolated perfused rat heart
(University of the Western Cape, 2004) Njagi, Angela Gakii; Mugabo, Pierre
Crinum macowanii (CM) is used in traditional medicine in the treatment of various diseases including ischemic heart disease, rheumatic fever, cancer and skin diseases. The aqueous extract of CM bulbs was found have a positive inotropic effect similar to the one of adrenaline in normotensive rats. After the extraction of CM bulbs four fractions were collected, (1:4), (2:3), (3:2) and (4:1), from ethyl actetate: hexane as an eluent. The (1:4) further using PLC and the major band used for the experiments. Structure elucidation was further carried out on the major band isolated and a new alkaloid was identified from the bulbs of CM. The major aim of the study was to test the alkaloid isolated on the "double sided" working heart system. The parameters to be assessed were coronary flow (Qe), aortic output (Qa), cardiac output (CO), systolic and diastolic pressure (SP/DP), pulse pressure and heart rate (Hr). Wistar rats weighing between 250-350g were used. The hearts were isolated and perfused using Krebs Henseleit solution on the "double sided" working heart system. The parameters were monitored through a pressure transducer connected to a power lab and a computer. The Qe, Qa, CO, SP/DP, Pulse pressure and Hr reduced significantly when lycorinone (the proposed name given to the new alkaloid extracted from Crinium macowanii) was used at the concentrations of 0.005μg and 0.05μg. Further studies are recommended for the verification of the mechanism of action of lycorinone (negative chronotropic and negative inotropic effects).
Evaluation of satherlandia frutescens for anti.cancer activity
(University of the Western Cape, 2002) Ghogomu, T; Amabeoku, G
The claim for anti-cancer activity of the plant Sutherlandiafrutescens was investigated against some cancer cell lines in-vitro and against a dichlorvos induced chemical carcinogenesis in-vivo. A preliminary phytochemical analysis of the plant extract was also done.
The evaluation of microwave drying on the polymorphic characteristics of carbamazepine granules prepared by the wet granulation process.
(Univeraity of the Western Cape, 2006) Smith, Marco; Syce, James
The drying conditions of granules for tabletting prepared by the wet granulation process traditionally involve conduction, convection and radiation heat transfer. Despite various technological advances utilizing combinations of these conditions, the drying rates for pharmaceutical granules remain relatively high. Microwave drying is an alternate source of drying for pharmaceutical granules providing a faster drying rate, cost reduction benefits as well as reduced shrinkage and structural damage to granules. Polymorphic transformation of compounds in pharmaceutical products have become an important focus area since it can have disastrous economic, therapeutic and legal transform infrared (FTIR) spectral analysis to determine whether microwave drying would alter the polymorphic characteristics of carbamazepine (CBZ) contained in granules and tablets prepared by a wet granulation process, in comparison to convection tray drying. In addition, the compressed tablets from each drying method were subjected to the British Pharmacopendial [5] quality control standards to verify compliance. Preformulation studies were conducted on CBZ and selected excipients to establish compatibility and suitability in the development of a simple fast release tablet formula. The commercial CBZ powder, termed beta (B)-polymorph, was used to prepare an alpha (a)- and a dihydrate (DHD) polymorph. All three polymorphs were fully characterized by XRPD and FTIR spectral analysis and served as fingerprint markers for granule and tablet evaluation.
An investigation into the impact of training pharmacists' assistants in early recognition and referral procedures on tuberculosis referral rates in the Cape Town metropole
(University of the Western Cape, 2009) Dalais, Lyzelle; Butler, N.C
Due to the resurgence of TB globally, in 2006 the WHO and the STOP-TB partnership launched a Global plan to STOP TB. This is a l0 year plan which aims to save l4 million lives between 2006 and 2015. Specific targets were set which aims to halt and begin to reverse the incidence of TB by 2015. The targets were to detect at least 70o/o of new sputum smear-positive TB cases and to cure at least 85% of these cases by 2005, and to reduce TB prevalence and death rates by 50o/o relative to 1990 by 2015 and to thus eliminate TB as a public health problem (l case per million population) by 2050 (WHO, 2006). Most individuals tend to approach a pharmacy to obtain information, advice or medication as it is easily accessible. The purpose of this study was to train Pharmacists' assistants' in TB symptom recognition and referral procedures and to measure its effect on referral rates. Methods: A convenience sample of (n-28) Phamacists' assistants (PA) from community pharmacies in the Cape Town Metropole region was selected to participate in the study. For the purpose of this study PAs were trained on referral procedures when recognising TB symptoms, the use of referral cards and the TB suspect register and appropriate referral to TB clinics for sputum tests. Pre-test and post1-test questionnaires covered the relevant questions pertaining to knowledge of TB and recognition of TB symptoms. The PAs were re-assessed using a post2-test questionnaire 4 months after the training to determine whether the knowledge gained in the training session was sustained. Part2 of the methodology was a supplementary sample of 3 pharmacies in which the PAs (n=12) were trained using a summarized but more intensive training method, which focused on the key aspects of the TB training to determine if the outcomes would be the same. Both samples reflected a decline in participants for the post2-test. This decrease was N=15 and N=8 from N=28 and N=12 respectively. The trends in knowledge scores between the two samples were similar. For sample N=15, an increase in knowledge from the pre-test questionnaire to post 1-test questionnaire (27 .2%) and a decrease in knowledge from post 1-test to post2-test (11.9%) was seen. Although there was a decrease in knowledge, it was still higher than the initial pre-test knowledge. For the sample N=8 there was an increase in knowledge from pre-test to post1 test (28.6) and a decrease in knowledge of 7.4% from post 1-test to post2- test. This decrease in knowledge was still above the initial knowledge gained. There was a smaller decrease in mean knowledge scores for N=8 than the decrease noticed in the sample N=15. The behaviours regarding utilization of the referral system was unsuccessful in both samples. [n study sample N=15 only I PA had referred patients using this method. In study sample N=8 none of the PA had referred patients using the referral system. Results & conclusion: It was found that there was an increase in knowledge after the intervention but a decrease in knowledge for the post2-test of both samples. The study sample N=12 training reflected a visibly higher maintenance of the mean knowledge from the post1-test to post2-test. According to the data from the post2 questionnaires patients were referred but the actual utilization of the referral procedures by means of record keeping was not implemented effectively in both samples. It is thus recommended that future studies should investigate the issue of documentation within pharmacies among pharmacy staff and that the movement of staff to different pharmacies is also considered.
Pharmacological evaluation of the medicinal plants, pelargonium triste (l), elytropappus rhinocerotis (l.f), and olea europaea africana (mill.) for antidiarrhoeal activity in mice
(University of the Western Cape, 2001) Bamuamba, Kopinga; Amabeoku, George J
Three medicinal plant species, Pelargonium triste (L.), Elytropappus rhinocerof,s (L.F.), and Olea europaea africana (Mill.), commonly used in the Western Cape traditional medicine to treat various ailments were assessed for activity against castor oil-induced diarrhoea in mice. The chemical composition and the high performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) analysis of the plant extracts were also investigated. At the doses of 25 mg/kg, 50 mg/kg, and 75 mg/kg all the plant extracts significantly (p< 0.05) reduced the number of diarrhoeal episodes in mice. At the doses of 50 mg/kg and 75 mg/kg the P. frisfe and E. rhinocerofis aqueous extracts significantly reduced the total diarrhoeal stool mass, and also significantly delayed the onset of diarrhoea in mice. The effect of P. fnsfe against castor oil-induced diarrhoea was dose dependent. Olea europaea africana did not significantly alter the onset of diarrhoea or the total diarrhoeal stool mass. The data obtained indicate that P. triste, E. rhinocerofis, and O. europaea africana possess anti-diarrhoeal properties, which justify their use in the Western Cape by traditional medicines practitioners to treat diarrhoea. The data also show that all three plant-species contain tannins and saponins. In addition, P. triste and O. europaea africana contain reducing sugars, where as E. rhinocerolzs contains cardiac glycosides.
Syndromic treatment of sexually transmitted infections: a western cape community pharmacist study
(University of the Western Cape, 2001) Ward, Kim Lana; Butler, Nadine
This cross-sectional survey of 85 randomly selected community pharmacists in the Western Cape, South Africa. estimates that 200 000 sexually transmitted infections (STl) cases are seen in private community pharmacies throughout the Western Cape per annum, contirming anecdotal evidence that community pharmacies are a preferred source of STI care. This study also describes the views of pharmacists regarding their utilisation as STI care providers, and the treatment practices of those who currently provide this service to the community. The majority (74.1%) of pharmacists view their current role in STI treatment as under-utilised and 98oZ expressed a slight to strong willingness to play a role in the syndromic treatment of STIs. Pharmacists' knowledge of the link between HIV and STIs is associated with an increased willingness to provide STI syndromic treatment (RR: 3 03, 959/oCI 1.45- 6.31, p=0.0004). The quality of STI treatment among those pharmacists currently providing medication is poor, with only 13.6oh (n=44) of pharmacists prescribing the correct treatment for penile discharge, 6.37o(n:32) for genital ulcers and OYo (n:32) prescribing the correct treatment for vaginal discharge. The findings of this study underline the need for STI treatment services ln communlty pharmacies, and the need for a pharmacist training intervention in the syndromic treatment of STIs.
An evaluation of the Bronchodilator properties of Mentha longifolia and Artemisia afra, traditional medicinal plants used in the Western Cape.
(University of the Western Cape, 2002) Harris, Lynne; Syce, James
The overall objective of this study was to investigate the claims that Mentha longifulia (ML) and Artemisia afra (AA) have anti-asthmatic properties. To realize this objective we were to determine the effects that the plants may have on contractions induced by agonists (e.g. methacholine, histamine, and leukotriene D+) and also to partially investigate the mechanism that may be involved' We hypothesized that extracts of Mentha longifotia arrd Artemisia afra would have respiratory airway smooth muscle relaxant properties and would be able to reverse methacholine and/or,histamine and/or leukotriene D+-induced contractions. plants were collected from Kirstenbosch National Botanical Institute and aqueous extracts prepared. Solutions of plant extracts were injected into an organ bath containing a zigzagcut guinea pig tracheal strip that had been pre-contracted with methacholine, histamine or leukotriene D+.
Formulation and evaluation of tablets manufactured from Dodonaea Angustifolia plant material
(University of the Western Cape, 2001) Kayitare, Egide; Syce, James A.
The liquid dosage form is the most frequently used form for traditional plant medicines. However, this dosage form is associated with many problems, e.g. physicochemical instability, microbial contamination, etc. which may be solved using a solid dosage form. This study investigates the formulation and manufacture of tablets containing two types of material prepared from the leaves of Dodonaea angustifolia. The main goal of the present study was to formulate and produce tablets containing the same amount of plant material as found in the usual dose of D. angustifolia decoction. ln addition, the suitability of using directly dried leaf powder and dried aqueous extract of the leaves, as raw material for the tablets, was compared. lt was hypothesized that tablets with acceptable physical properties and containing 80% or more of plant material could be produced and that tablets containing dry leaf powder or dry plant extract would possess different properties. Raw plant material in the form of dried leaf powder and dried aqueous extracts (Dry Extract 1 from wide leaf plant and Dry Extract 2from narrow leaf plant) of D. angustifolr3 were prepared and their physical characteristics determined. Based on the latter, suitable excipients were selected and formulas containing the same amount of the plant material as found in a single decoction dose of D. angustifolia were elaborated. Thereafter, tablets containing these plant materials were manufactured using the direct compression method and the physical properties of the manufactured tablets were assessed. Results of the pre-formulation study indicated distinct differences in physical properties between the three plant materials. The dry leaf powder had a median particle size of 20prm compared to 200pm and 3441tm for Dry Extracts 1 and 2, respectively. The dry leaf powder was significantly more soluble in ethanol than water (55.7t0.g vs. 26.1+3o/o, t-test, p=0.05), while the extracts dissolved completely but required vigorous shaking. The compressibility of the dry powder was very good (11.910.5%), that of dry extract 2 good (15.9t2.8Yo) and that of Dry Extract 1 only passable (22.6tO.8%). All the powders showed poor flowability, but they had different potentials to pick up moisture. More importantly, the dry extracts became very cohesive and tended to dissolve in the absorbed moisture at relative humidity above 60%. The tablets containing the dry leaf powder and those containing Dry Extracts 1 and 2 required different formulas and different compression forces and displayed different physical properties. The final proportions of plant material per tablet were B5o/of or dry powder,650/o for dry extract 1 and 7Oo/of or dry extract 2. Finally, all the final tablets had acceptable physical properties. However, the tablets containing the dry extracts showed slow disintegration (27.6 and 29.6min for Dry Extracts 1 & 2, respectively, vs. 3.1min for dry powder) and low dissolution rate (38.60/o and 6o.20/o al 45min for Extracts 1 and 2 vs. 92.7o/o for the dry powder). We conclude that the different forms of raw material prepared from the leaves of D. angustifotia have different properties, but can be formulated and manufactured into directly compressed tablets. However, the form of raw material dictates whether the tablets can contain a high proportion (80% plus) of plant material and also influences the properties of the final tablets. Comparable results can be anticipated if materials from other parts of the plant and/or from other plants are to be used.

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