Beyond the 3 + 1Cs: Exploring the coach-athlete relationship in South African women’s rugby

Abstract

The coach-athlete relationship plays an important role in shaping athlete development, performance outcomes and overall well-being. Jowett’s 3 + 1Cs model is one of the most common conceptual models that seek to define this dynamic. Applied in sport psychology, the model comprises four interdependent constructs: emotional bonds (closeness), dedication to shared goals (commitment), cooperative behaviours (complementarity), and shared understanding (co-orientation). While widely applied across sporting contexts, its use in underrepresented settings, such as women’s rugby in South Africa, remains limited. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 36 participants, including 28 female players (mean age: 24.8 ± 4.0 years) and 8 coaches (mean age: 41 ± 3.8 years). Findings revealed that coach–athlete relationships reflected the 3 + 1Cs. The findings further suggest that the 3 + 1Cs are enacted in context-specific ways, with relationship quality emerging through daily coaching practices, open communication, and collaboration between coaches and players. Future research should include perspectives of team managers and performance analysts, examine how coaches’ backgrounds influence relational efficacy, and conduct comparative analyses across sports. Investigating structural barriers within coach education systems will also be critical to strengthen the model’s application and may reveal deeper relational connections.