Biomonitoring toxic element exposure in Sudanese artisanal gold miners using µ-PIXE and LIBS hair analysis technique

Abstract

Artisanal mining has become a lucrative sector due to rising global demand and prices for rare and rare-earth elements. In Sudan, this informal industry supports rural livelihoods but lacks effective regulation and occupational safety. The absence of protective equipment exposes miners to mercury vapor, dust, and other toxic substances, posing serious health and environmental risks. This study applies Particle-Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE) and Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) to analyse toxic and essential trace elements in miners’ hair, used as a non-invasive biological indicator of chronic exposure. Elements detected include S, Cl, K, Ca, Ti, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Br, Sr, and Pb. Multivariate analysis through Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and binarization reveals elemental correlations and exposure patterns. The integrated PIXE–LIBS approach offers a robust framework for biomonitoring, occupational safety improvement, and sustainable artisanal mining practices in Sudan.