Naidoo, NathanGhaziasgar, Mehrdad2026-02-162026-02-162025Naidoo, N. and Ghaziasgar, M., 2025. A Multi-Platform Electronic Travel Aid Integrating Proxemic Sensing for the Visually Impaired. Technologies, 13(12), p.550.https://doi.org/10.3390/technologies13120550https://hdl.handle.net/10566/21958Visual impairment (VI) affects over two billion people globally, with prevalence increasing due to preventable conditions. To address mobility and navigation challenges, this study presents a multi-platform, multi-sensor Electronic Travel Aid (ETA) integrating a combination of ultrasonic, LiDAR, and vision-based sensing across head-, torso-, and cane-mounted nodes. Grounded in orientation and mobility (OM) principles, the system delivers context-aware haptic and auditory feedback to enhance perception and independence for users with VI. The ETA employs a hardware–software co-design approach guided by proxemic theory, comprising three autonomous components—Glasses, Belt, and Cane nodes—each optimized for a distinct spatial zone while maintaining overlap for redundancy. Embedded ESP32 microcontrollers enable low-latency sensor fusion providing real-time multi-modal user feedback. Static and dynamic experiments using a custom-built motion rig evaluated detection accuracy and feedback latency under repeatable laboratory conditions. Results demonstrate millimetre-level accuracy and sub-30 ms proximity-to-feedback latency across all nodes. The Cane node’s dual LiDAR achieved a coefficient of variation at most 0.04%, while the Belt and Glasses nodes maintained mean detection errors below 1%. The validated tri-modal ETA architecture establishes a scalable, resilient framework for safe, real-time navigation—advancing sensory augmentation for individuals with VI.enAssistive technologyElectronic travel aidLiDAROrientation and mobilityProxemic frameworkArticle