Magister Philosophiae - MPhil (Religion and Theology)

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The parousia-expectation: does it have any effect on mission? A historical-missiological perspective of the pentecostal movement
(University of Western Cape, 1997) Isaacs, Edwin; Robinson, P.J.
Although there were various small Pentecostal experiences (like baptismsin the Holy Spirit accompanied by glossolalia utterances) just before and after the beginning of the twentieth century, the origin of the Pentecostals is generally traced back to two incidents very early in this century (Frodsham 1946:15-17; Kendrick 1961 :34-36). Some writers prefer to linkthe origin of the Pentecostal Movement to Charles Parham's Bible Collegeat Topeka (Kansas) (Nichol 1966: 26). Others prefer to link thisMovement's origin to the Azusa Street revival of William J.Seymour (Nichol 1966: 32).
The ''silence'' of the church in South Africa on rape
(University of the Western Cape, 1997) Esau, Wendy; Conradie, Ernst
Rape is a complex issue with many faces. Different researchers from the field of psychology to sociology have attempted to understand rape. ln some psychological studies, rape is considered as a psychological disorder. Psychologists like Krafft-Ebing, a researcher on sexual disorders, in his research "Psychopathia Sexualis," categorized rapists as "degenerate, imbecile men" (Brownmiller 1975:1). Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis (1856-1939) (Meyer et al 1989:39), did not deal with the subject of rape specifically. Freud viewed the sexuality of men, which was sometimes marked by aggression and a strong tendency to subdue women, as biological. It is necessary for men to overcome the resistance of the sexual object (women) by actions other than mere courting (Geis 1977:18-19). According to Freud, this aggression is a natural characteristic of being male. Thus, in rape there is no abuse or violence, no offence, no victims and no offenders (Fortune 1983:114-115\. This view that aggression was natural to being male made rape, which is an act of aggression, a natural act. Women had no need to complain, speak up, or lay a charge against their offenders in rape. They need to be silent. Rape was most of the times considered as natural and acceptable in both church and society.
Ma'at in Egipte en veranderinge in die Amarna periode
(University of Western Cape, 1998) Van Wyk, Rodney Peters; Laurie, D.
Gedurende die Amama Periode vind daar belangrike gebeure plaas wat ingrypende veranderinge in die lewe van die Egiptiese mens teweeg gebring het. Na die dood van Akhenaten, is hierdie koning, wat bekendheid daarvoor verwerf het dat hy verantwoordelik was vir die veranderings wat in die Amama Periode plaasgevind het, tot ketter verklaar en is daar 'n terugkeer na die ou orde (Ortodoksie). Daar bestaan ook 'n "Restorasie Stele", wat opgestel is deur Tutankhamun ('n koning wat na Akhenaten aan bewind gekom het) waarin die opmerking gemaak word dat Ma'at nou weer herstel is. Dit is teen hierdie agtergrond dat ons met hierdie studie probeer om vas te stelof die veranderinge gedurende die Amama Periode sodanig was dat dit die verstaan van Ma 'at kon be�nvloed het. Daarmee saam salons moet vra of Ma'at die potensiaal gehad het om te verdwyn. Het die konsep Ma'at werklik verdwyn, of was daar dalk 'n verarming of selfs 'n verryking van die konsep Ma'at gedurende die Amama Periode? Die vraag is belangrik, omdat 'n verandering in die verstaan van Ma'at ingrypende verandering in die Egiptiese samelewing kon impliseer. Op byna elke terrein van die Egiptiese kultuur wat bestudeer word, kom Ma'at na vore. Dit wil dan lyk asofMa'at onlosmaaklik met die totale lewensstyl van die antieke Egiptenaar verbind was. Daar sou dus nie van 'n verandering in betekenis of van 'n verdwyning van Ma'at gepraat kan word sonder dat die samelewing ook daardeur geraak sou word nie. Geleerdes het dikwels die betekenis van Ma'at verklaar vanuit die spesifieke terrein en periode wat hy of sy bestudeer het. Dit mag dien as 'n verduideliking waarom verskillende betekenisse aan die begrip geheg is. Dit gebeur egter ook dat geleerdes wat dieselfde terrein bestudeer het, ook van mekaar verskiloor die betekenis van Ma'at. Daar is ook geleerdes wat die begrip Ma'at eenders verklaar het. Dit beteken egter nie dat menings oor die betekenis van Ma'at wat algemeen uitgespreek word voldoende is nie. Dit is duidelik dat geleerdes met ooreenstemmende menings oor Ma'at dikwels hierdie menings van mekaar oorgeneem het. Hoewel dit nie die fokus van ons studie sal wees nie, is dit tog belangrik dat ons ook die verskille sal uitwys. Dit sal ons in staat stelom vas te stelof daar 'n verandering in betekenis plaasgevind het en of Ma'at gedurende hierdie periode "verdwyn" het. Dit is ook belangrik dat ons sal aandag skenk aan die moontlikheid dat en die omstandigheid waaronder gode sou kon verdwyn. Ons sal moet vasstelof die omstandighede in die Amama Periode sodanig was dat Ma'at, wat ook 'n godin was, kon verdwyn het. Aangesien die konsep Ma'at onlosmaaklik verbind was met die samelewing, moet die rol van die koning, wat in beheer was van daardie samelewing, in ag geneem word. Dit is immers ook die koning wat hierdie veranderinge in die Arnarna Periode veroor-saak het en dit is dus belangrik dat ons sal weet wat die koning se rol ten opsigte van Ma'at was.
lnterreligious dialogue and the colonial legacy: A critical assessment of current models for interreligious dialogue as tools toward reconciliation in the South African context
(University of Western Cape, 1998) Johnson, Arthur Anthony; Petersen, Robin M.
This chapter will start the debate by concentrating on the phenomenon or occurrence of religious pluralism. Thereafter, the reasons for its existence and its importance in providing a system of coexistence in mutuality will be examined. The contours of interreligious interaction will be outlined as briefly as possible, by assessing the processes of interreligious dialogue and the role this dialogue must play, from a Christian perspective. An attempt will be made to show how Christianity's view of the other shifted from viewing the other as posing a threat, to regarding the other as affording an opportunity to understand personal and individual reality within a context of diversity. A further attempt is made to show how by mutual effort evil and injustice can be eradicated through dialogue, within the interreligious context.
Libation in African Christian Theology: a critical comparison of the views of Kwasi Sarpong, Kwesi Dickson, John Pobee and Kwame Bediako
(University of the Western Cape, 2005) Agyarko, Robert Owusu; Conradie, Ernst M.; Dept. of Religion and Theology; Faculty of Arts
The issue of libation poses an important challenge to Christianity in Africa and, more specifically, among the Akan people in Ghana. Libation is traditionally a key ritual for the Akan as an ethnic group. However, the European missionaries who operated in West Africa condemned this ritual as idolatrous. Following the emergence of African Christian theology, especially within the Ghanaian context, various African theologians have contributed to a more systematic discussion of such libation practices. This thesis entails a critical comparison of the views of four Akan (in Ghana) theologians on Christian participation in libation practices. On this basis, the research problem in this thesis is stated in the following way: ―What are the points of divergence that lie beneath the different positions of Kwesi Sarpong, Kwesi Dickson, John Pobee and Kwame Bediako on the question of whether and in what forms Christian participation in libation practices in an Akan context in Ghana may be regarded as compatible with the Christian faith? This thesis describes analyses, compares and assesses the cultural and theological presuppositions of the views of these four Akan Ghanaian theologians on Christian participation in libation rituals. It shows how the views of these four theologians on libation are influenced by their views on the tatus which is attributed, both in Akan culture and in contemporary Christianity in Ghana, to abosom (lesser divinities) and nsamamfo (ancestors) in relation to Onyame (Supreme Being). The purpose of this thesis is therefore to clarify the cultural and theological assumptions underlying current debates on the observance of libation rituals by Christians in Ghana. The task is a description of the views of Sarpong, Dickson, Pobee and Bediako on the compatibility of Christian participation in libation practices in an Akan context with the Christian faith - just as they themselves understand its content and significance. In this thesis I approached the debate on libation in African Christian theology in two ways, namely following a direct and a thematic approach. In the direct approach the focus is explicitly on libation as a topic either in the context of African traditional religion and culture by itself or in its encounter with Christianity. In the thematic approach the focus is on libation within the context of its wider religious (with reference to God, the lesser divinities and ancestors) and cultural (the relationship between Christianity and African culture) contexts. The research indicates that the point of divergence amongst the four theologians mentioned above is almost always related to the invocation and petition of the lesser divinities and the ancestors. In addition to these major theological issues, "ecclesiastical sanctions" also forms a major determining factor that influences the positions of these; theologians. On their respective views, Sarpong asserts that libation in its present form is not incompatible with the Christian faith. By contrast, Bediako maintains that libation as is presently practiced among the Akan is not compatible with the Christian faith neither can it be adapted into the Christian faith. On the other hand, Dickson and Pobee maintain that libation rituals are not compatible with the Christian faith, but that it can be adopted and adapted into the Christian faith if the content of the accompanying prayer is made in consonance with Christian theology. The thesis is comprised of eight chapters and a postscript. In the postscript, I offer some personal views and argue that libation has to be adapted before it can be compatible with the Christian faith. I suggest that libation should be made only to God and to the ancestors. Petitions during libation rituals should be made only to God, while the presence of the ancestors should be recognized in a "symbolic manner" by an invitation to join the living human beings to make such petitions.
Reasons for the insertion of the incomparability of God in Solomon's prayer
(University of the Western Cape, 2007) Loots, Peter Charles Edmund; Cloete, W.T.W
In this minithesis, I argue that the prime reason of the Deuteronomistic Historian (Dtr) for inserting the incomparability of God in Solomon's prayer is to convey his (Dtr's) theological interpretation of the history of Israel as history controlled by her sovereign God, Yahweh. Other reasons are also considered. In order to argue the main reason and others, the sociohistorical aspects of the Davidic-Solomonic era are briefly highlighted as well as the Deuteronomistic Historian, his time and theology. A closer look at the Babylonian exile shows the significance of this event in terms of the theological thought of Dtr conveyed in the passage 1 Ki. 8:23-26 and the rest of Solomon's prayer.
Towards a theology of inculturation and transformation: theological reflections on the practice of initiation rites in Masasi district in Tanzania
(2009) Jambulosi, Mavuto; Engdahl, Hans
The aim of my research project is to give a theological reflection on the practice of initiation rites within Masasi district, in south-east Tanzania. While initiation remains a very significant tradition among the Yao, Makonde and Makua tribes in Masasi, the ancestral cult and the content of sex related education in these rites have presented challenges to the Christian communities. Some Christians do not feel comfortable with the inclusion of the ancestor cult since this does not immediately seem to agree with Christian doctrine. There is also a general acknowledgment that the rites could be partly responsible for the premature involvement in sexual activity by young people. In the past theological attempts were made to Christianise Masasi initiation rites with the hope of addressing these two issues highlighted above. This approach had its difficulties and limitations since not all communities in Masasi villages are Christian and since religious diversity has to be respected. Furthermore, in areas where Christianisation has been put into effect, not much change has been recorded with regards to the two main problems noted above. Christianisation simply touched on the form but did not influence the content of rites. Other theologies, especially in missionary circles, viewed initiation as an antithesis of Christianity, a view which undoubtedly discouraged constructive Christian dialogue with the practice. African theologians on the other hand seem not to have produced much systematised treatments on the subject of rites which otherwise would have been useful materials to various African Christian communities. As a result of these and other inadequacies we have a problem as far as what should be done to have the Christian faith inform the processes within the rites of passage. What kind of theology will respect the culture and yet uphold teachings of the biblical tradition in addressing cultural initiation? In this project I am proposing a theology of �inculturation and transformation� to address the impasse described above. Inculturation �describes the process of integration of the faith and life of the church in a given culture� (Pobee 1992:35). The aim of inculturation is to express the Christian faith in a culturally relevant manner so as to transform the culture. Initiation rites will be made to engage with the Christian theology in such a way that the precepts of biblical theology will be applied to rites with a view to moulding those aspects of rites that are not consistent with the teachings of the Bible. The good elements already found in these rites will be maintained. The goal of inculturation is not to destroy the rites but to present the rites �in a far more perfect way on an essentially different and infinitely higher level� (Nyamiti 1971:6). Through inculturation the underlying cultural worldview behind rites is taken into account. Inculturationtransformation theology aims at addressing the inner levels of culture. For this to happen the Gospel has to go in-culture and mould it from within.September 2009
A case study of the debate on homosexuality within the United Methodist Church
(University of the Western Cape, 2013) Joaquim, Neusa Marta Pedro; Lombard, Christo
Of all the Christian denominations in the United States, the United Methodist Church (UMC) is one of three probably experiencing the greatest amount of conflict over the rights of its members who practice homosexuality. History shows that United Methodists have always maintained a great diversity of opinion on many matters within the Church. Having dealt with its racist and sexist policies in the past, the UMC is now tackling its homophobic beliefs. Scripture, tradition, experience, and reason have been used as tools to deal with this debate, which has become one of the most divisive in the church and society. At present, there are two main positions concerning the debate on homosexuality in the UMC: the rejecting and accepting positions. Although the UMC - as set forth in its book of discipline - finds the practice of homosexuality incompatible with Christian teaching, its debate on homosexuality seems far from over. First, there is a majority conviction supporting the current position of the church. Second, there is a steadily growing minority conviction that maintains that the responsible practice of homosexuality should be accepted and homosexuals should enter into full membership with the church. Third, the UMC upholds basic human and civil rights. Nonetheless, gays and lesbians are not ordained into the ministry. Fourth, the UMC acknowledges that our human understanding of human sexuality is limited and a combined effort with other sciences will help us understand human sexuality more completely. One can see the church�s struggle in search for a Christian sexual ethic. It seems difficult to foresee any form of consensus that could bridge the big differences of opinion and conviction behind the two camps in the struggle: "rejection" of homosexuality (non-punitive) and "full acceptance". They simply do not seem to be compatible, rationally and ethically. It is the task of this mini-thesis to explore the United Methodist Church's struggle in the search for ethical discernment on homosexuality.
An assessment of recent ethical discourses on globalization: comparing the critique of Joseph Stiglitz on global capital with ecumenical globalization debates on the Accra declaration
(University of the Western Cape, 2013) Davids, Rochelle Nicolette; Lombard, Christo
This research will investigate how globalization developed its own ethical discourse, based on perceived benefits and failures; also how it could be transformed within the global economic sphere, based on critique and advice given by Joseph Eugene Stiglitz, a world renowned economist. Globally, historically and currently, there has been a misunderstanding about the concept and dynamics of globalization among government officials, economists and ordinary citizens. This resulted in an economic imbalance that benefited [and still benefits] the rich and leaves the poor outside in the cold. In this research I wish to explore the critique of Stiglitz on globalization, specifically on global capital. The aim is to bring the Stiglitz critique into alignment with critical debates within ecumenical circles on the responsibility of human agents � based on middle-ground (shared ground) ethical discourse. The normative framework for such a comparison of responses to globalization, delivering middle axioms in ethical discourse, is taken from various strands of �Responsibility Theory�, especially the contributions of authors such as T�dt, Schweiker and Sacks. The important goal of this inter-disciplinary exercise is to bring about a balance between the discrepancy of the proclaimed benefits and the extreme negative effects which globalization has for millions of people worldwide, as expressed by Stiglitz and confirmed by various ecumenical discourses. For the purposes of this study ecumenical debates on globalization, called forth by the impact of the Accra Declaration on Globalization (2004), are discussed in some detail: the Agape Process within the World Council of Churches, the Stackhouse Project on Globalization and the joint Project on Globalization of the Uniting Reformed Church of Southern Africa and the Reformed Church in Germany. The results of the study show a convergence in ethical concerns and the strengthening of ethical discourse between critical economists and ecumenical theologians, especially on extreme and ever-growing discrepancies between rich and poor, and the effect of unbridled economic activity on the future of our planet. It is hoped that this study will contribute towards ongoing inter-disciplinary work on the burning social-ethical issues facing humanity and our earth.
Missionary tendencies in the Methodist Church of Southern Africa, 1980 to 2000: a critical history
(University of the Western Cape, 2015) Benjamin, Keith Richard
The problem that will be investigated in this research project may be formulated in the following way: Which tendencies may be identified in the mission programmes of the Methodist Church of Southern Africa during the period from 1980 to 2000? This thesis will provide a critical historical overview of missionary tendencies in the Methodist Church of Southern Africa from 1980 to 2000 with particular emphasis on the Journey to a New Land Convocation held in 1995. From 2000, the Methodist Church of Southern Africa had begun to reconsider the changes implemented following the Journey to a New Land Convocation. It will investigate such tendencies in the light of the emerging ecumenical paradigm of Christian mission as postulated by David Bosch. I will argue that three phases may be identified in the focus of the mission of the Methodist Church of Southern Africa during this period, namely 1) a period of ecumenical involvement from 1980-1993, 2) the introduction of the process called a �Journey to a New Land� from 1993 to 1995 and 3) the impact of this process on the mission of the Methodist Church of Southern Africa from 1995 to 2000. The thesis will provide an overview and critical analysis of these phases in order to assess whether the emerging ecumenical paradigm of Christian mission as postulated by David Bosch is reflected in each of these phases. A literary review indicates that the missionary focus of the Methodist Church of Southern Africa does not reflect the emerging postmodern paradigm of working towards togetherness. Nor does it proclaim a vision of unity but shows a tendency towards denominational needs. It does not embrace a diversity thereby enriching its missionary focus to give substance to the emerging ecumenical paradigm but shows more divergence than integration. There is also clear evidence that it opted for a holistic rather than a pluralistic approach to defining its missionary focus.
The implementation of Islamic perspectives on nutrition in the context of Muslim faith-based organisations in Cape Town
(University of the Western Cape, 2018) Kagee, Mohammed Luqmaan; Saidi, Mustapha; Conradie, Ernst M.
South African debates on food security address a wide range of issues related to the production, the distribution and the consumption of food in the context of deep concerns over the impact of poverty, unemployment and inequality. One aspect of such debates is on the need for nutritious food amidst hunger, malnutrition, obesity and the prevalence of diabetes. This study will investigate the Islamic theological injunctions and guidelines that govern the production, the different facets of distribution and the consumption of food in Muslim communities. There are numerous theological injunctions from the Quran and prophetic traditions (?ad?th) guiding the Muslim community in relation to food security. These include injunctions around the need to provide nutritious food. The study will assess the programmes of five Muslim faith-based organisations in the Cape Town Metropolitan Area, working in the field of food security and more specifically, feeding schemes. The food programmes of these organisations will be described, analysed and assessed in order to establish whether, and to what extent, the Islamic injunctions on nutrition are implemented, given various constraints. This will require attention to the policies, the strategies and the practices associated with such feeding schemes.
The reign of King Manasseh in the Deuteronomist history and the Chronicler�s history: A study in reception
(University of the Western Cape, 2019) Ferguson, Allan; Lawrie, Douglas
One of the most marked differences between the Deuteronomic History and that of the Chronicler concerns the assessment of King Manasseh�s reign. The Deuteronomist portrays Manasseh as the most evil of all Judah�s kings (2 Kings 21:1�18) and the main cause for the doom of Judah. Even the pious Josiah, the paragon of the Deuteronomist (2 Kings 23:25), could no longer avert this doom (2 Kings 23:26). The Chronicler initially echoes the view of the Deuteronomist History, repeating some sentences from Kings verbatim (2 Chronicles 33:1�10). But 2 Chronicles 33:11�20 introduces some information not found in 2 Kings. Here we are told that Manasseh after he had been taken captive by the Assyrians, repented of his sins and concluded his reign in an aura of sanctity. In this respect, the two accounts differ fundamentally. I intend to examine the views of selected scholars from the past roughly fifty years on this discrepancy. How they assess these two accounts and to what extent their diverse assessments are based on the different methodologies that they used. I intend to examine, particularly, their views on the following aspects of Manasseh�s reign: religious customs, the administrative role, the judicial role and the political role.
Exploring the commonalities between Stanley Hauerwas and James H Cone�s narrative approaches for moral formation for post-Apartheid South Africa
(University of the Western Cape, 2019)
This thesis will investigate the narrative approach to moral formation by comparing the narrative paradigm as espoused by James H. Cone and Stanley Hauerwas and will apply the findings to post-Apartheid South Africa. I am interested in the extent to which the principles of modernity forms part of the society and the shaping of morality, yet the thesis does not focus on modernity, but on narrative as ideal ethical framework for moral formation. This thesis will look at community, narrative and agency through Stanley Hauerwas� notion of virtue and James H. Cone�s views of black theology and oppression as means for narrative informed moral formation. This thesis is divided into three major parts. First; an investigation into narrative which includes the arguments made against modernity, narrative and history as it pertains to moral formation and how narrative is understood. Second; James H. Cone and Stanley Hauerwas� views on narrative and moral formation followed by closer look at Cone and Hauerwas and the critiques of their views. Third; contextualising the findings in a South African context by using the findings in conjunction with South African scholars. The aims are to investigate if moral reform is possible by means of narrative ethics through justice; by means of reconciliation and transformation.
A critical analysis of the ordained leadership in the Full Gospel Church of South Africa
(University of the Western Cape, 2020) Jacobs, Nigel; Klaasen, John
This research stems from a personal internal conflict and concern regarding the impact the local church is making in the community and on its congregational members. Through personal involvement in the Full Gospel Church of South Africa on a local level, the researcher set out find out what can be done to make the church more effective, relevant, and impactful in its function as a church. The way the world operates today compared to twenty years ago is vastly different. Yet, despite the vast changes that have taken place on a global, national, and even local level, the question remains whether the church has experienced similar strides to remain relevant and effective without compromising its values and purpose.
The effective functioning of church community in moral formation: the narrative approach of robin gill
(University of the Western Cape, 2020) Pinyana, Mcebisi; Klaasen, John S.
This research is set out as a narrative analysis of the functioning of church communities in moral formation from the selected congregations in the Diocese of Cape Town of the Anglican Church of Southern Africa (ACSA). The study focussed on three churches in the diocese. The research methodology employed can be described as qualitative and descriptive in nature. The data was collected by means of interviews involving clergy, church wardens, leaders of various organisations/formations, and members of the church who are also community members.
The Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification (1999): A Comparison of the implied positions of Simon Maimela and Klaus N�rnberger
(2021) Pieterse, Willem Elia �Nosey�; Conradie, E M
The Protestant reformation in the 16th century led to some of the major and long-lasting schisms in global Christianity. The doctrine of justification was at the core of Lutheran schism which was triggered by the papal bull of 1521. The Confession of Augsburg (1530) and the subsequent Apology (1531) failed to heal that schism and instead resulted in the hardening of the schism after the Council of Trent (1545-1563). After Vatican II, on-going dialogue between the Roman Catholic Church (RCC) and the Lutheran World Federation (LWF) continued to address this schism. This culminated in the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification (JDDJ) (1999) signed by the Catholic Church�s Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity (PCPCU) and the LWF. However, this declaration did not by itself heal the schism and resulted in mutual discontent, e.g., signalled by RCC�s Cardinal Avery Dulles and the statement of 250 German professors (1998), advising Lutheran churches not to sign the JDDJ (1999). This study explores the reception of the JDDJ (1999) in the context of Evangelical Lutheran Church in Southern Africa (ELCSA) as one of the member churches of the LWF. However, such reception arguably remains extremely limited in terms of synodical debates and resolutions, letters to the press or publications by members of ELCSA. Instead, this study focuses on the positions on justification adopted by two senior Lutheran scholars who are members of ELCSA, namely Klaus N�rnberger and Simon Maimela. The question that will be investigated is whether the views on the doctrine of justification of Klaus N�rnberger and Simon Maimela diverge from the �differentiated� consensus on justification as expressed in the JDDJ (1999).
Food relief or food security? A study of the policies and programmes of four Muslim social welfare organisations in South Africa
(University of Western Cape, 2021) Khan, Cassiem Dawood; Conradie, Ernst
Food is a basic need, but there is nothing simple, rudimentary, and straightforward about its provision, production, distribution, preparation, or consumption. The provision of food is regarded as an act of great virtue in all faiths and is particularly firmly entrenched in Islamic doctrine, thought, history, culture, and practice. This study investigates the programmes and implementation strategies of four national Muslim social welfare organisations (MSWOs) operating in and from South Africa; these organisations provide food relief to thousands of poor people worldwide, using faith-based donations such as Zak�h (a purifying tax on personal wealth).
Representations of Islam and Muslims on a public broadcast television programme in South Africa: A Case Study of An Nur the Light
(University of Western Cape, 2021) Dramat, Sakeenah; Scharnick-Udemans, Lee-Shae
For decades literature on Islam and Muslims utilised nomenclature which drew from commentary within news and mass media that perpetuated bias representations of Islam and Muslims as dangerous, violent, threats to democratic freedom, oppressors of women, oppressed women, terrorists, fundamentalists and a range of other stereotypes in society. Although Muslims have been an inherent part of South African society for nearly five hundred years, and are protected under ambit of religious freedom granted by the constitution, there is a on-going record micro-aggression and covert discrimination against Muslims from sections of society.

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